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Species’ activity patterns are driven by the need to meet basic requirements of food, social interactions, movement, and rest, but often are influenced by a variety of biotic and abiotic factors. We used camera-trap data to describe and compare the activity patterns of the relatively poorly studied tayra (Eira barbara) across 10 populations distributed from the south of Mexico to the north of Argentina, and attempted to identify biotic or abiotic factors that may be associated with variation in level of diurnality. In a subset of sites we also aimed to document potential seasonal variation in activity. We used a kernel density estimator based on the time of independent photographic events to calculate the proportion of diurnal, crepuscular, and nocturnal activity of each population. Tayras were mostly active during diurnal periods (79.31%, 759 records), with a lower proportion of crepuscular activity (18.07%, 173 records) yet we documented some variation in patterns across the 10 study areas (activity overlap coefficient varied from Δ 4 = 0.64 to Δ 1 = 0.95). In northern localities, activity peaked twice during the day (bimodal) with most activity ocurring in the morning, whereas closer to the geographical equator, activity was constant (unimodal) throughout the day, peaking at midday: activity either was unimodal or bimodal in southern localities. Despite investigating multiple potential abiotic and biotic predictors, only latitude was associated with variation in the proportion of diurnal activity by tayras across its range, with increased diurnal activity closer to the equator. Seasonal comparisons in activity showed a tendency to reduce diurnality in dry versus rainy seasons, but the pattern was not consistently significant. This is the most comprehensive description of tayra activity patterns to date, and lends novel insight into the potential flexibility of the species to adapt to local conditions.

We estimated jaguar density and tenure, and investigated ranging behavior, using camera traps across the Maya Forest Corridor, a human-influenced landscape in central Belize that forms the only remaining connection for jaguar populations inhabiting two regional forest blocks: the Selva Maya and the Maya Mountain Massif. Jaguars were ubiquitous across the study area. Similar to the neighboring Selva Maya, mean density ranged from 1.5 to 3.1 jaguars per 100 km2, estimated by spatial capture-recapture models. Cameras detected almost twice as many males as females, probably reflecting detection bias, and males ranged more widely than females within the camera grid. Both sexes crossed two major rivers, while highway crossings were rare and male-biased, raising concern that the highway could prevent female movement if traffic increases. Jaguars were more transient where the landscape was fragmented with settlements and agriculture than in contiguous forest. Compared with jaguars in the protected forests of the Maya Mountains, jaguars in central Belize displayed a lower potential for investment in intraspecific communication, indicative of a lower quality landscape; however, we did detect mating behavior and juveniles. Tenure of individuals was shorter than in the protected forests, with a higher turnover rate for males than females. At least three-quarters of reported jaguar deaths caused by people were male jaguars, and the majority was retaliation for livestock predation. Jaguars seem relatively tolerant to the human-influenced landscape of central Belize. However, intensification of game hunting and lethal control of predators would threaten population persistence, while increased highway traffic and clear-cutting riparian forest would severely limit the corridor function. Our results show that the viability of the corridor, and thus the long-term survival of jaguar populations in this region, will depend on appropriate land-use planning, nonlethal control of livestock predators, enforcement of game hunting regulations, and wildlife-friendly features in future road developments.

Communication is an integral part of animal behavior, impacting population structure and individual fitness and regulating spatial distributions. Scent marking is common among solitary, low-density, and wide-ranging carnivores, such as felids. Understanding the functional role of scent marking will inform our understanding of the behavioral ecology of carnivores. We investigated patterns of scent marking by pumas (Puma concolor) and jaguars (Panthera onca) via weekly surveys of trails for scrapes and documenting scent-marking behaviors and responses using motion-triggered video cameras. Jaguars mainly sprayed vegetation, whereas pumas mainly scraped the ground. Only a subset of individuals for both pumas and jaguars were responsible for the majority of scent-marking activity. On average, male pumas scraped more frequently (scrapes/km) than male jaguars, and the scrape rate of male pumas increased following the presence of potential mates and competitors. Male pumas returned to trails more quickly following the presence of conspecifics (potential competitors or mates) than in their absence, however, visitation by male jaguars increased in response to competitors only. A male puma detected travelling with three different females on separate occasions scraped more frequently than males who were not detected with females. This study suggests that jaguars and pumas are constantly assessing, and reacting to, the presence and marks of competitors and potential mates, facilitating the maintenance of complex social structures.

Population assessments of wide-ranging, cryptic, terrestrial mammals rely on camera trap surveys. While camera trapping is a powerful method of detecting presence, it is difficult distinguishing rarity from low detection rate. The margay (Leopardus wiedii) is an example of a species considered rare based on its low detection rates across its range. Although margays have a wide distribution, detection rates with camera traps are universally low; consequently, the species is listed as Near Threatened. Our 12-year camera trap study of margays in protected broadleaf forest in Belize suggests that while margays have low detection rate, they do not seem to be rare, rather that they are difficult to detect with camera traps. We detected a maximum of 187 individuals, all with few or no recaptures over the years (mean = 2.0 captures/individual ± SD 2.1), with two-thirds of individuals detected only once. The few individuals that were recaptured across years exhibited long tenures up to 9 years and were at least 10 years old at their final detection. We detected multiple individuals of both sexes at the same locations during the same survey, suggesting overlapping ranges with non-exclusive territories, providing further evidence of a high-density population. By studying the sparse annual datasets across multiple years, we found evidence of an abundant margay population in the forest of the Cockscomb Basin, which might have been deemed low density and rare, if studied in the short term. We encourage more long-term camera trap studies to assess population status of semi-arboreal carnivore species that have hitherto been considered rare based on low detection rates.

Modern and paleoclimate changes may have altered species dynamics by shifting species' niche suitability over space and time. We analyze whether the current genetic structure and isolation of the two large American felids, jaguar (Panthera onca) and puma (Puma concolor), are mediated by changes in climatic suitability and connection routes over modern and paleoclimatic landscapes. We estimate species distribution under 5 climatic landscapes (modern, Holocene, last maximum glaciations [LMG], average suitability, and climatic instability) and correlate them with individuals' genetic isolation through causal modeling on a resemblance matrix. Both species exhibit genetic isolation patterns correlated with LMG climatic suitability, suggesting that these areas may have worked as "allele refuges." However, the jaguar showed higher vulnerability to climate changes, responding to modern climatic suitability and connection routes, whereas the puma showed a continuous and gradual transition of genetic variation. Despite differential responsiveness to climate change, both species are subjected to the climatic effects on genetic configuration, which may make them susceptible to future climatic changes, since these are progressing faster and with higher intensity than changes in the paleoclimate. Thus, the effects of climatic changes should be considered in the design of conservation strategies to ensure evolutionary and demographic processes mediated by gene flow for both species.

Camera trapping is the standard field method of monitoring cryptic, low-density mammal populations. Typically, researchers run camera surveys for 60 to 90 days and estimate density using closed population spatially explicit capture-recapture (SCR) models. The SCR models estimate density, capture probability (g0), and a scale parameter (σ) that reflects ranging behaviour. We used a year of camera data from 20 camera stations to estimate the density of male jaguars (Panthera onca) in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in Belize, using closed population SCR models. We subsampled the dataset into 276 90-day sessions and 186 180-day sessions. Estimated density fluctuated from 0.51 to 5.30 male jaguars / 100 km2 between the 90-day sessions, with comparatively robust and precise estimates for the 180-day sessions (0.73 to 3.75 male jaguars / 100 km2). We explain the variation in density estimates from the 90-day sessions in terms of temporal variation in social behaviour, specifically male competition and mating events during the three-month wet season. Density estimates from the 90-day sessions varied with σ, but not with the number of individuals detected, suggesting that variation in density was almost fully attributable to changes in estimated ranging behaviour. We found that the models overestimated σ when compared to the mean ranging distance derived from GPS tracking data from two collared individuals in the camera grid. Overestimation of σ when compared to GPS collar data was more pronounced for the 180-day sessions than the 90-day sessions. We conclude that one-off (‘snap-shot’) short-term, small-scale camera trap surveys do not sufficiently sample wide-ranging large carnivores. When using SCR models to estimate the density from these data, we caution against the use of poor sampling designs and/or misinterpretation of scope of inference. Although the density estimates from one-off, short-term, small-scale camera trap surveys may be statistically accurate within each short-term sampling period, the variation between density estimates from multiple sessions throughout the year illustrate that the estimates obtained should be carefully interpreted and extrapolated, because different factors, such as temporal stochasticity in behaviour of a few individuals, may have strong repercussions on density estimates. Because of temporal variation in behaviour, reliable density estimates will require larger samples of individuals and spatial recaptures than those presented in this study (mean +/- SD = 14.2 +/- 1.2 individuals, 37.7 +/- 4.7 spatial recaptures, N = 276 sessions), which are representative of, or higher than published sample sizes. To satisfy the need for larger samples, camera surveys will need to be more expansive with a higher density of stations. In the absence of this, we advocate longer sampling periods and subsampling through time as a means of understanding and describing stability or variation between density estimates.

Although many large mammals currently face significant threats that could lead to their extinction, resources for conservation are often scarce, resulting in the need to develop efficient plans to prioritize conservation actions. We combined several methods in spatial ecology to identify the distribution of the endangered Baird's tapir across its range from southern Mexico to northern Colombia. Twenty-eight habitat patches covering 23% of the study area were identified, harboring potentially 62% or more of the total population for this flagship species. Roughly half of the total area is under some form of protection, while most of the remaining habitat (~70%) occurs in indigenous/local communities. The network with maximum connectivity created from these patches contains at least one complete break (in Mexico between Selva El Ocote and Selva Lacandona) even when considering the most generous dispersal scenario. The connectivity analysis also highlighted a probable break at the Panama Canal and high habitat fragmentation in Honduras. In light of these findings, we recommend the following actions to facilitate the conservation of Baird's tapir: 1) protect existing habitat by strengthening enforcement in areas already under protection, 2) work with indigenous territories to preserve and enforce their land rights, and help local communities maintain traditional practices; 3) re-establish connections between habitat patches that will allow for connectivity across the species' distribution; 4) conduct additional noninvasive surveys in patches with little or no species data; and 5) collect more telemetry and genetic data on the species to estimate home range size, dispersal capabilities, and meta-population structure. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica North Carolina State University, United States University of Texas at Austin, United States Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, Colombia Universidad de Antioquia, Colombia Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras, Honduras Universidad Técnica Nacional, Costa Rica Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, México Instituto Internacional en Conservación y Manejo de Vida Silvestre

Large mammalian herbivores are experiencing population reductions and range declines. However, we lack regional knowledge of population status for many herbivores, particularly in developing countries. Addressing this knowledge gap is key to implementing tailored conservation strategies for species whose population declines are highly variable across their range. White-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari) are important ecosystem engineers in Neotropical forests and are highly sensitive to human disturbance. Despite maintaining a wide distributional range, white-lipped peccaries are experiencing substantial population declines in some portions of their range. We examined the regional distribution and population status of the species in Mesoamerica. We used a combination of techniques, including expert-based mapping and assessment of population status, and data-driven distribution modelling techniques to determine the status and range limits of white-lipped peccaries. Our analysis revealed declining and highly isolated populations of peccaries across Mesoamerica, with a range reduction of 87% from historic distribution and 63% from current IUCN range estimates for the region. White-lipped peccary distribution is affected by indices of human influence and forest cover, and more restricted than other sympatric large herbivores, with their largest populations confined to transboundary reserves. To conserve white-lipped peccaries in Mesoamerica, transboundary efforts will be needed that focus on both forest conservation and hunting management, increased cross-border coordination, and reconsideration of country and regional conservation priorities. Our methodology to detail regional white-lipped peccary status could be employed on other poorly-known large mammals. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, México Wildlife Conservation Society, United States Instituto Internacional en Conservación y Manejo de Vida Silvestre

Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) are listed as least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red list of Threatened Species, yet we lack knowledge on basic demographic parameters across much of the ocelot's geographic range, including population density. We used camera‐trapping methodology and spatially explicit capture‐recapture (SECR) models with sex‐specific detection function parameters to estimate ocelot densities across 7 field sites over 1 to 12 years (from data collected during 2002–2015) in Belize, Central America. Ocelot densities in the broadleaf rainforest sites ranged between 7.2 and 22.7 ocelots/100 km2, whereas density in the pine (Pinus spp.) forest site was 0.9 ocelots/100 km2. Applying an inverse‐variance weighted average over all years for each broadleaf site increased precision and resulted in average density ranging from 8.5 to 13.0 ocelots/100 km2. Males often had larger movement parameter estimates and higher detection probabilities at their activity centers than females. In most years, the sex ratio was not significantly different from 50:50, but the pooled sex ratio estimated using an inverse weighted average over all years indicated a female bias in 1 site, and a male bias in another. We did not detect any population trends as density estimates remained relatively constant over time; however, the power to detect such trends was generally low. Our SECR density estimates were lower but more precise than previous estimates and indicated population stability for ocelots in Belize.

Little is known about the Northern Naked-tailed Armadillo, Cabassous centralis (Miller, 1899). Here we present a new record of C. centralis in the Maya Mountain Massif of Belize, from camera-trap surveys covering an area of 200 km2 conducted yearly between 2002 and 2017 in lowland tropical broadleaf evergreen forest, and a dead specimen found adjacent to a highway. The record presented constitutes a range expansion of ca 65 km for C. centralis in Belize. This adds valuable data about a species for which the geographic distribution is poorly known.

The method presented in here allows for the unequivocal differentiation between non-invasive samples of ocelots and margays, when used in combination with the protocol by Roques et al. (Mol Ecol Resour 11:171–175, 2011). It reduced costs and laboratory processing, decreasing the chances of contamination, and therefore facilitating the identification of large numbers of samples by simple PCR amplification, without the need for sequencing. Our protocol was tested on 371 faeces collected in the field in 25 different sites across the distribution areas of both species, and compared to the mtDNA sequencing of 23 of the samples. The concatenation of a commonly used segment of Cytochrome b with other mitochondrial markers such as ATP-8 allows the identification of these two sister-species, but there was not enough resolution when used alone. With this new method, we could identify 98% of the field faeces, obtaining a global rate of 22.3 faeces of ocelot per margay sample in roads and trails located in potential areas of coexistence, suggesting generally lower densities of margay, although margays could be underestimated due to their arboreal habits. In Serra das Almas, located in the Brazilian Caatinga, the number of faeces of ocelot detected was especially elevated. Low densities of ocelots could be favoring higher densities of margays in areas like the Sinaloan dry forests and the Chimalapas montane forests, both in Mexico. Ocelots were found from open to forested habitats, including mosaic cropland and grassland, however margays were only found in forests where average canopy height exceeded 5 m.

Evaluating range-wide habitat use by a target species requires information on species occurrence over broad geographic regions, a process made difficult by species rarity, large spatiotemporal sampling domains, and imperfect detection. We address these challenges in an assessment of habitat use for jaguars (Panthera onca) outside protected areas in Central America. Occurrence records were acquired within 12 putative corridors using interviews with knowledgeable corridor residents. We developed a Bayesian hierarchical occupancy model to gain robust inference, allowing for heterogeneity introduced in the sampling process over space and time, using records of jaguar occurrence prone to false positives and false negatives. Probability of false detection of jaguars increased with the number of interviews conducted per unit (from 5.42% to 7.74% given

Simple Summary Acting to preserve biodiversity can involve harming individual animals. It has recently been argued that conventional practice has placed too much emphasis on the preservation of collective entities, such as populations and species, at the expense of suffering for individuals. At least some advocates of the ‘Compassionate Conservation’ movement find any deployment of lethal measures in the interests of conservation to be unacceptable. This shifts the balance of priorities too far. While conservationists have a duty to minimise harm, and to use non-lethal measures where feasible, there will be serious implications for conservation if this movement were to be widely influential. Furthermore, the ‘do-no-harm’ maxim the compassionate conservationists advocate does not always promote the welfare of individual animals. Abstract Human activity affecting the welfare of wild vertebrates, widely accepted to be sentient, and therefore deserving of moral concern, is widespread. A variety of motives lead to the killing of individual wild animals. These include to provide food, to protect stock and other human interests, and also for sport. The acceptability of such killing is widely believed to vary with the motive and method. Individual vertebrates are also killed by conservationists. Whether securing conservation goals is an adequate reason for such killing has recently been challenged. Conventional conservation practice has tended to prioritise ecological collectives, such as populations and species, when their interests conflict with those of individuals. Supporters of the ‘Compassionate Conservation’ movement argue both that conservationists have neglected animal welfare when such conflicts arise and that no killing for conservation is justified. We counter that conservationists increasingly seek to adhere to high standards of welfare, and that the extreme position advocated by some supporters of ‘Compassionate Conservation’, rooted in virtue ethics, would, if widely accepted, lead to considerable negative effects for conservation. Conservation practice cannot afford to neglect consequences. Moreover, the do-no-harm maxim does not always lead to better outcomes for animal welfare.

We used open population, spatial capture-recapture (SCR) models to estimate sex-specific density, survival, per capita recruitment, and population growth rate of ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) at five sites in Belize with up to 12 yr of data per site. Open population SCR models enabled us to separate survival and recruitment from migration using an ecologically realistic, spatially explicit movement model. Yearly survival probability across 4 broadleaf forest sites was estimated at 0.73-0.84 for males and 0.81-0.87 for females, with no clear indication of sex differences. Yearly per capita recruitment was estimated across four broadleaf forest sites at 0.06-0.08 recruits/N for males and 0.09-0.12 recruits/N for females, again with no clear indication of sex differences. At a pine forest site with a population comprised largely of males, survival and recruitment estimates were similar to the broadleaf sites. Population densities in the broadleaf forest sites ranged from 6.5 to 14.7 ocelots/100 km(2), and 0.9-2.5 ocelots/100 km(2) in the pine forest site, with strong evidence of a female-biased sex ratio in the broadleaf sites and a male-biased sex ratio in the pine forest site. We also found strong evidence that female within-year space use at the broadleaf sites was smaller than that of males, and that within-year space use at the pine forest site was larger than that at broadleaf sites. Between-year home-range relocation at broadleaf sites was of a similar spatial scale as within-year space use, consistent with philopatry. We found evidence of a small population decline (posterior probability > 0.9) at two of four broadleaf sites; however, given the level of uncertainty about decline magnitudes, we suggest continued monitoring of these sites to increase site-years and gain further precision on population growth rate estimates. Estimating demographic parameters at large spatial and temporal scales is important for establishing reliable baseline estimates for future comparison and for understanding changes in population dynamics. Long-term data sets like those we collected are of particular importance for long-lived species living at low densities and large spatial scales, where not many individuals are exposed to capture in any one year. Philadelphia Zoo; Virginia Tech; Wildlife Conservation Society; Panthera We thank the Belize Forest Department, Program for Belize, Gallon Jug Estate, Yalbac Ranch and Cattle Company, Belize Audubon Society, and Bull Run Farm (G. W. and M. Y. Headley) for permission to conduct this research. We thank the Philadelphia Zoo, Virginia Tech, Wildlife Conservation Society, and Panthera for funding over the years. We thank Richard Chandler for providing an MCMC script, which served as the foundation for the script used in our analyses. We thank Nicodemus Bol, Mauricio Aguilar, Thomas Mc Namara, former graduate students Adam Dillon, Claudia Wultsch, and Miranda Davis, and numerous volunteers and assistants who conducted field and laboratory work, from multiple universities, especially the University of Belize, The Environmental Research Institute, and Virginia Tech.

Although the paca is the most frequently hunted game species throughout the Neotropics, its behavioral and ecological requirements remain poorly understood. Here, we describe ranging behavior, spatio-temporal intraspecific interactions, and cavity use within a mosaic landscape in Central Belize, based on radio-tracking of four males and two females. This study is the first to investigate social interactions and spatial structure within a paca population in unprotected marginal habitat. We detected extensive home range overlap between males and between sexes. Male-male overlap was less extensive within core areas, while female core ranges were almost entirely occupied by one or more males. On average, pacas used at least six cavities within their home range. The majority of cavities were in the core areas and we did not detect simultaneous co-habitation of the same location. On average, females occupied cavities that were closer together, and closer to water bodies, than those of males. Overall, our study suggests a general tolerance during nocturnal foraging activities, but exclusive use of core areas and associated cavities. The larger ranges of males than females and the extensive overlap between conspecifics suggest a polygamous or promiscuous mating system in this landscape.

Background. Details of how, why and in what conditions large felids make scrapes is unknown. Here, we examined the general hypothesis about the use of scrapes for marking proposals, as well as to communicate with other individuals to signalize particular points or areas of interest, by studying scrape-marking behaviour of jaguars and pumas. Methods. We surveyed by scrapes between five days and two months mainly during dry season in five study areas from Mexico (El Edén and San Ignacio), Belize (Cockscomb) and Brazil (Angatuba and Serra das Almas), which differed in presence and/or abundance of jaguars and pumas. Paths were slowly walked while searching for scrapes by teams normally composed of two people and tracks were stored in GPS, distinguishing the type of path surveyed (unpaved track roads, trails and cross-country). Results. We found a total of 269 felid scrapes along 467 km of paths surveyed, obtaining a finding rate of 0.576 scrapes per km. Most scrapes were found in car tracks (0.629 scrapes per km), followed by trails (0.581 scrapes per km), and rarely did we find scrapes in cross country (0.094 scrapes per km). In trails, scrapes were found in a similar frequency in the centre and edge, whereas in car tracks they were mainly found in the edge. There were also clear differences in the position of the scrapes between study areas that differed in presence and/or abundance of pumas and jaguars, with scrapes located mainly in the centre in areas only with pumas, in the centre and in the edge in areas with a similar number of jaguars and pumas, and in the edge in area mainly dominated by jaguars. The remarking rate tended to be higher in one of the areas with only pumas where natural vegetation was scarcer. Felids chose sites mainly covered by leaves and located in paths less wide, clean and rarely used. Discussion. Scraping was a frequent behaviour in the largest felids of America, although in some areas, scraping behaviour was rare. Scrapes seem to be signalizing some specific areas within territories and data suggest that they are made with the proposal of communication between individuals. It seems that a high scraping behaviour in pumas is not related to the presence of jaguars

Agent-based models can predict system-level properties of populations from stochastic simulation of fine-scale movements. One important application to conservation lies in their ability to consider the impact of individual variation in movement and decision-making on populations under future landscape changes. Here, we present a spatially explicit agent-based simulation of a population of jaguars (Panthera onca) in a mixed forest and farmland landscape in Central America that demonstrates an application of least-cost modelling, a description of the way that agents move through their environment, to equilibrium population dynamics. We detail the construction and application of the model, and the processes of calibration, sensitivity analysis and validation with empirical field data. Simulated jaguars underwent feeding, reproduction, and mortality events typical of natural populations, resulting in realistic population dynamics and home range sizes. Jaguar agents located inside protected forest reserves exhibited higher fitness (fecundity, energy reserves, age and age of mortality) as well as lower energy- and habitat-related mortality than jaguar agents located outside these reserves. Changes in fecundity directly affected the dynamics of simulated populations to a larger degree than either mortality or agent–agent interactions. Model validation showed similar patterns to camera traps in the field, in terms of landscape utilisation and the spatial distribution of individuals. The model showed less sensitivity to socially motivated and fine-scale movements, apart from those directed towards feeding and reproduction, but reflected the interactions and movement of naturally occurring populations in this region. Applications of the model will include testing impacts on population dynamics of likely future changes in landscape structure and connectivity.

The composition of local mammalian carnivore communities has far-reaching effects on terrestrial ecosystems worldwide. To better understand how carnivore communities are structured, we analysed camera trap data for 108 087 trap days across 12 countries spanning five continents. We estimate local probabilities of co-occurrence among 768 species pairs from the order Carnivora and evaluate how shared ecological traits correlate with probabilities of co-occurrence. Within individual study areas, species pairs co-occurred more frequently than expected at random. Co-occurrence probabilities were greatest for species pairs that shared ecological traits including similar body size, temporal activity pattern and diet. However, co-occurrence decreased as compared to other species pairs when the pair included a large-bodied carnivore. Our results suggest that a combination of shared traits and top-down regulation by large carnivores shape local carnivore communities globally. Fil: Davis, Courtney L.. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Instituto de Biología Subtropical - Nodo Puerto Iguazú | Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Instituto de Biología Subtropical - Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina Fil: Rich, Lindsey N.. University of California at Berkeley; Estados Unidos Fil: Farris, Sach J.. Virginia Tech University; Estados Unidos. Appalachian State University; Estados Unidos Fil: Kelly, Marcela J.. Virginia Tech University; Estados Unidos Fil: Di Bitetti, Mario Santiago. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Instituto de Biología Subtropical - Nodo Puerto Iguazú | Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Instituto de Biología Subtropical - Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina Fil: Di Blanco, Yamil Edgardo. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Instituto de Biología Subtropical - Nodo Puerto Iguazú | Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Instituto de Biología Subtropical - Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina Fil: Albanesi, Sebastian Alejandro. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo. Instituto de Ecología Regional; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Tucumán. Instituto de Biodiversidad Neotropical. Universidad Nacional de Tucumán. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo. Instituto de Biodiversidad Neotropical. Instituto de Biodiversidad Neotropical; Argentina Fil: Farhadinia, Mohammad S.. University of Oxford; Reino Unido Fil: Gholikhani, Navid. Iranian Cheetah Society; Irán Fil: Hamel, Sandra. UiT The Arctic University of Norway; Noruega Fil: Harmsen, Bart J.. University of Belize; Belice Fil: Wultsch, Claudia. Virginia Tech University; Estados Unidos Fil: Kane, Mamadou D.. Senegalese National Parks Directorate; Senegal Fil: Martins, Quinton. UiT The Arctic University of Norway; Noruega. The Cape Leopard Trust, Cape Town; Sudáfrica Fil: Murphy, Asia J.. State University of Pennsylvania; Estados Unidos Fil: Steenweg, Robin. Grande Prairi; Canadá Fil: Sunarto, Sunarto. World Wildlife Fund; Indonesia Fil: Taktehrani, Atieh. Iranian Cheetah Society; Irán Fil: Thapa, Kanchan. Virginia Tech University; Estados Unidos. Conservation Science Unit; Nepal Fil: Tucker, Jody M.. Conservation Science Unit; Nepal Fil: Whittington, Jesse. Park Resource Conservation; Canadá Fil: Widodo, Febri A.. World Wildlife Fund; Indonesia Fil: Yoccoz, Nigel G.. UiT The Arctic University of Norway; Noruega Fil: Miller, David A.W.. State University of Pennsylvania; Estados Unidos

Funding: Part-funded by UK EPSRC grant EP/K041061/1 (DB); Richard Glennie was funded by the Carnegie Trust. Open population capture‐recapture models are widely used to estimate population demographics and abundance over time. Bayesian methods exist to incorporate open population modeling with spatial capture‐recapture (SCR), allowing for estimation of the effective area sampled and population density. Here, open population SCR is formulated as a hidden Markov model (HMM), allowing inference by maximum likelihood for both Cormack‐Jolly‐Seber and Jolly‐Seber models, with and without activity center movement. The method is applied to a 12‐year survey of male jaguars (Panthera onca) in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Belize, to estimate survival probability and population abundance over time. For this application, inference is shown to be biased when assuming activity centers are fixed over time, while including a model for activity center movement provides negligible bias and nominal confidence interval coverage, as demonstrated by a simulation study. The HMM approach is compared with Bayesian data augmentation and closed population models for this application. The method is substantially more computationally efficient than the Bayesian approach and provides a lower root‐mean‐square error in predicting population density compared to closed population models. Postprint

Fil: Rich, Lindsey N. Virginia Tech University. Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Estados Unidos. Fil: Davis, Courtney L. University of Pennsylvania. Forest Resources Building. Department of Ecosystem Science and Management; Estados Unidos. Fil: Farris, Zach J. Auburn University. Department of Biological Sciences; Estados Unidos. Fil: Farris, Zach J. Virginia Tech University. Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Estados Unidos. Fil: Miller, David A. W. University of Pennsylvania. Forest Resources Building. Department of Ecosystem Science and Management; Estados Unidos. Fil: Tucker, Jody M. U. S. Forest Service. Sequoia National Forest; Estados Unidos. Fil: Hamel, Sandra. The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø. Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics. Department of Arctic and Marine Biology; Noruega. Fil: Farhadinia, Mohammad S. Iranian Cheetah Society; Irán. Fil: Farhadinia, Mohammad S. University of Oxford. Department of Zoology. Wildlife Conservation Research; Reino Unido. Fil: Steenweg, Robin. State University of Montana. Department of Ecosystem and Conservation Science. Wildlife Biology Program; Estados Unidos. Fil: Di Bitetti, Mario Santiago. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Instituto de Biologia Subtropical. Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina. Fil: Di Bitetti, Mario Santiago. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Instituto de Biologia Subtropical. Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina. Fil: Di Bitetti, Mario Santiago. Asociación Civil Centro de Investigaciones del Bosque Atlántico; Argentina. Fil: Di Bitetti, Mario Santiago. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Facultad de Ciencias Forestales; Argentina. Fil: Thapa, Kanchan. Virginia Tech University. Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Estados Unidos. Fil: Thapa, Kanchan. World Wildlife Fund. Conservation Science Unit; Estados Unidos. Fil: Kane, Mamadou D. Senegalese National Parks; Senegal. Fil: Sunarto, S. World Wildlife Fund; Indonesia. Fil: Robinson, Nathaniel P. University of Montana. College of Forestry and Conservation; Estados Unidos. Fil: Paviolo, Agustín Javier. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina. Fil: Paviolo, Agustín Javier. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina. Fil: Paviolo, Agustín Javier. Asociación Civil Centro de Investigaciones del Bosque Atlántico; Argentina. Fil: Cruz, María Paula. Universidad Nacional de Misiones. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina. Fil: Cruz, María Paula. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Instituto de Biología Subtropical. Nodo Puerto Iguazú; Argentina. Fil: Cruz, María Paula. Asociación Civil Centro de Investigaciones del Bosque Atlántico; Argentina. Fil: Martins, Quinton. The Cape Leopard Trust; Sudáfrica. Fil: Martins, Quinton. Audubon Canyon Ranch; Estados Unidos. Fil: Gholikhani, Navid. Iranian Cheetah Society; Irán. Fil: Taktehrani, Ateih. Iranian Cheetah Society; Irán. Fil: Whittington, Jesse. Banff National Park Resource Conservation; Canadá. Fil: Widodo, Febri A. World Wildlife Fund; Indonesia. Fil: Yoccoz, Nigel G. The Arctic University of Norway Tromsø. Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics. Department of Arctic and Marine Biology; Noruega. Fil: Wultsch, Claudia. Virginia Tech University. Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Estados Unidos. Fil: Wultsch, Claudia. Virginia. Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics. American Museum of Natural History; Estados Unidos. Fil: Wultsch, Claudia. Virginia. Panthera (New York); Estados Unidos. Fil: Harmsen, Bart J. Panthera (New York); Estados Unidos. Fil: Harmsen, Bart J. University of Belize, Environmental Research Institute; Belice. Fil: Kelly, Marcella J. Virginia Tech University. Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Estados Unidos. Biodiversity loss is a major driver of ecosystem change, yet the ecological data required to detect and mitigate losses are often lacking. Recently, camera trap surveys have been suggested as a method for sampling local wildlife communities, because these observations can be collated into a global monitoring network. To demonstrate the potential of camera traps for globalmonitoring, we assembled data from multiple local camera trap surveys to evaluate the interchange between fine- and broad-scale processes impacting mammalian carnivore communities.Location: Argentina, Belize, Botswana, Canada, Indonesia, Iran, Madagascar, Nepal, Norway, Senegal, South Africa, and the U.S.A.Methods:We gathered camera trap data, totalling>100,000 trap nights, from across five continents. To analyse local and species-specific responses to anthropogenic and environmental variables, we fitted multispecies occurrence models to each study area. To analyse global-level responses, we then fitted a multispecies, multi-area occurrence model.Results:We recorded 4,805 detections of 96 mammalian carnivore species photographed across 1,714 camera stations located in 12 countries. At the global level, our models revealed that carnivore richness and occupancy within study areas was positively associated with prey availability.Occupancy within study areas also tended to increase with greater protection and greater distances to roads. The strength of these relationships, however, differed among countries.Main conclusions:We developed a research framework for leveraging global camera trap data to evaluate patterns of mammalian carnivore occurrence and richness across multiple spatial scales.Our research highlights the importance of intact prey populations and protected areas in conserving carnivore communities. Our research also highlights the potential of camera traps for monitoring wildlife communities and provides a case study for how this can be achieved on a global scale. We encourage greater integration and standardization among camera trap studies worldwide, which would help inform effective conservation planning for wildlife populations bothlocally and globally.

Habitat loss and fragmentation present major challenges for wildlife conservation since connectivity between suitable habitat patches is needed for dispersal, allowing for genetic exchange between populations. These exchanges can be particularly important in marginal habitats as they ensure the persistence of populations that are often most vulnerable to natural occurrences or anthropogenic activities. Medium-sized mammals can be particularly susceptible to changes in the landscape and their absence can be an indicator of habitat degradation. In this study, 6 pacas ( Cuniculus paca ), medium-sized mammals that are an important prey of large felids and a popular game species for hunters in Belize, were radiotracked in the Central Belize Corridor. Home range estimates for these were larger than those documented for pacas inhabiting broadleaf forests of Panama and Costa Rica. When broadleaf habitats were inaccessible due to flooding, pacas selected a savannah habitat with dense vegetation over more open grass savannahs. Knowledge of how pacas and other wildlife use the landscape in the wildlife corridor will allow more effective management by guiding the development of adequate regulations for hunting and resource exploitation. La perdida y fragmentacion del habitat presentan un gran reto para la conservacion de la vida silvestre debido a que la conectividad entre parches de habitat es necesaria para la dispersion, permitiendo el intercambio genetico entre poblaciones. Estos intercambios pueden ser particularmente importantes en habitats marginales, ya que aseguran la persistencia de poblaciones que a menudo, son mas vulnerables a fenomenos naturales o actividades antropogenicas. Los mamiferos de tamano mediano pueden ser particularmente susceptibles a los cambios en el paisaje y su ausencia puede ser un indicador de la degradacion del habitat. En este estudio, 6 pacas ( Cuniculus paca ), -mamiferos de tamano mediano que son una presa importante para los grandes felinos y una especie popular para los cazadores en Belice-, fueron monitoreados por radio-telemetria en el Corredor Central de Belice. Las estimaciones de ambito hogareno de estas, fueron mayores a las documentadas para pacas que habitan en bosque latifoliado en Panama y Costa Rica. Cuando los habitats en bosque latifoliado eran inaccesibles debido a las inundaciones, las pacas eligieron un habitat de sabana con vegetacion densa en lugar de la sabana con pastos mas abiertos. El conocimiento de como las pacas y otros animales silvestres utilizan el paisaje en el corredor de vida silvestre, permitira un manejo mas efectivo, guiando el desarrollo de normas adecuadas para la caza y la explotacion de los recursos.

Millions of people throughout the tropics consume wild meat. Overhunting reduces food security for people and large predators, yet little is known of the impact of hunting in systems where people and predators target the same prey species. We collate published data on predator diet in Belize with interview data about the consumption of wild and domestic meat by Belizeans, to compare the wild-meat diets of humans, jaguarsPanthera oncaand pumasPuma concolorand assess the sustainability of the combined offtake by humans and jaguars. Six wild mammal species (nine-banded armadilloDasypus novemcinctus, pacaCuniculus paca, collared peccaryPecari tajacu, white-lipped peccaryTayassu pecari, red brocket deerMazama americanaand white-tailed deerOdocoileus virginianus) comprised 7% of the animal-protein meals eaten by Belizeans. Overall, 80% of these meals were eaten by 20% of interviewees, suggesting a necessary role of wild meat for the minority. The same species were found in 69 and 86% of jaguar and puma scats, respectively. We estimate a national annual harvest of c. 4,000 tonnes of these six wild mammals by humans and jaguars, of which 78% is hunted by people. Sustainability is difficult to evaluate because prey population data are lacking in Belize. However, simple models suggest that a sustainable harvest at this rate would require higher prey population densities than averages recorded in hunted Neotropical forests. We emphasize the need for robust regional estimates of game species densities, to improve assessments of sustainability and inform hunting regulations. We recommend that the requirements of predators as well as those of people be considered when assessing wild meat harvests.

Summary Many capture–recapture surveys of wildlife populations operate in continuous time, but detections are typically aggregated into occasions for analysis, even when exact detection times are available. This discards information and introduces subjectivity, in the form of decisions about occasion definition. We develop a spatiotemporal Poisson process model for spatially explicit capture–recapture (SECR) surveys that operate continuously and record exact detection times. We show that, except in some special cases (including the case in which detection probability does not change within occasion), temporally aggregated data do not provide sufficient statistics for density and related parameters, and that when detection probability is constant over time, our continuous-time (CT) model is equivalent to an existing model based on detection frequencies. We use the model to estimate jaguar density from a camera-trap survey and conduct a simulation study to investigate the properties of a CT estimator and discrete-occasion estimators with various levels of temporal aggregation. This includes investigation of the effect on the estimators of spatiotemporal correlation induced by animal movement. The CT estimator is found to be unbiased and more precise than discrete-occasion estimators based on binary capture data (rather than detection frequencies) when there is no spatiotemporal correlation. It is also found to be only slightly biased when there is correlation induced by animal movement, and to be more robust to inadequate detector spacing, while discrete-occasion estimators with binary data can be sensitive to occasion length, particularly in the presence of inadequate detector spacing. Our model includes as a special case a discrete-occasion estimator based on detection frequencies, and at the same time lays a foundation for the development of more sophisticated CT models and estimators. It allows modelling within-occasion changes in detectability, readily accommodates variation in detector effort, removes subjectivity associated with user-defined occasions and fully utilizes CT data. We identify a need for developing CT methods that incorporate spatiotemporal dependence in detections and see potential for CT models being combined with telemetry-based animal movement models to provide a richer inference framework.

In this study, we estimate life history parameters and abundance for a protected jaguar population using camera-trap data from a 14-year monitoring program (2002–2015) in Belize, Central America. We investigated the dynamics of this jaguar population using 3,075 detection events of 105 individual adult jaguars. Using robust design open population models, we estimated apparent survival and temporary emigration and investigated individual heterogeneity in detection rates across years. Survival probability was high and constant among the years for both sexes (φ = 0.78), and the maximum (conservative) age recorded was 14 years. Temporary emigration rate for the population was random, but constant through time at 0.20 per year. Detection probability varied between sexes, and among years and individuals. Heterogeneity in detection took the form of a dichotomy for males: those with consistently high detection rates, and those with low, sporadic detection rates, suggesting a relatively stable population of ‘residents’ consistently present and a fluctuating layer of ‘transients’. Female detection was always low and sporadic. On average, twice as many males than females were detected per survey, and individual detection rates were significantly higher for males. We attribute sex-based differences in detection to biases resulting from social variation in trail-walking behaviour. The number of individual females detected increased when the survey period was extended from 3 months to a full year. Due to the low detection rates of females and the variable ‘transient’ male subpopulation, annual abundance estimates based on 3-month surveys had low precision. To estimate survival and monitor population changes in elusive, wide-ranging, low-density species, we recommend repeated surveys over multiple years; and suggest that continuous monitoring over multiple years yields even further insight into population dynamics of elusive predator populations. Published version

Densities of elusive terrestrial mammals are commonly estimated from camera-trap data. Typically, this is a 2-step process involving 1) fitting conventional closed population capture–recapture models to estimate abundance, and 2) using ad hoc methods to determine the effective trapping area. The methodology needs to be accurate, robust, and reliable when results are used to guide wildlife management. We critically review 47 published studies and discuss the problems associated with contemporary population estimates of elusive species from camera-trap data. In particular we discuss 1) individual identification, 2) sample size and capture probability, 3) camera location and spacing, 4) the size of the study area, and 5) ad hoc density estimation from the calculation of an effective trapping area. We also discuss the recently developed spatially explicit capture–recapture (SECR) models as an alternative approach that does not require the intermediate step of estimating an effective trapping area. We recommend 1) greater transparency in study design and quality of the data, 2) greater rigor when reviewing manuscripts, and 3) that more attention is given to the survey design to ensure data are of sufficient quality for analysis. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.

Activity patterns of top predators are adapted for efficient predation, whereas their prey must contend with the conflicting demands of acquiring resources and avoiding predators. Here we analyse the activity of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) in relation to their most important prey species, armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) and pacas (Agouti paca) respectively, in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Belize using large-scale camera-trap data. Jaguars and pumas have similar 24 h activity patterns as armadillos and pacas, both burrow-dwelling species, and negligible overlap with less frequently consumed prey species such as red brocket deer (Mazama americana) and peccaries. Activity of armadillos and pacas varied with moon phase, with reduced activity during periods of brighter illumination, perhaps as a predator-avoidance strategy. Across the study area, moon phase had no overall influence on jaguar and puma activity; however at locations associated with armadillos, jaguar activity declined with brighter illumination, perhaps indicating a shift to alternative prey during full moon when armadillos avoided foraging above ground. No such relationship was found for pumas and moon phase at locations associated with pacas.

Marking behaviors of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) were investigated by linking sign from transect surveys to species, sex, and individual detected by camera traps along trails in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Belize. The most commonly encountered big-cat signs were scrape marks. These were produced by cats raking the ground with their feet. Scrapes were associated more strongly with presence of male pumas than with female pumas or jaguars of either sex. Scats found in scrapes were genotyped to species level and indicated that jaguars produced larger scrapes than pumas and that pumas were more likely to scrape with their hind feet than with front feet. Scrapes were spatially clustered along trails, indicating that individuals scrape in response to other scrapes in the same area. High scraping frequencies were not associated with the presence of specific individuals, suggesting that scrape-marking behavior does not signal dominance in this area.

The Neotropics support more species of terrestrial vertebrate than any of the other seven biogeographic realms, including ~1,300 mammals and ~2,600 reptiles (Ash et al. 2005, Loyola et al. 2009). These provide a rich base of potential prey for large neotropical predators. Single rainforest locations have yielded as many as 24 different taxa in the diet of the jaguar, Panthera onca Linnaeus 1758, and 20 in the diet of puma, Puma concolor Linnaeus 1771 (Garla et al. 2001, Leite and Galvao 2002, Moreno 2006). Published diets deduced from the scats of top predators rarely acknowledge the taxonomic richness of potential prey in the area when evaluating whether the sample size can adequately represent the true dietary richness and breadth. Diet studies consequently risk underestimating plasticity in feeding ecology, and wildlife managers may fail to distinguish predator species that have the potential to adapt to diminishing prey diversity from those that do not. Jaguars and pumas co-exist in increasingly fragmented and human-dominated landscapes where they must compete with humans not only for habitat but also for prey (Foster et al. in press, Leite and Galvao 2002). Understanding dietary flexibility of such large felids will allow us to better predict the impact of changes in prey availability on their long-term persistence, and on patterns of co-existence (Foster et al. in press). Here we investigate the influence of scat sample size on: (1) the number of taxa detected in jaguar and puma diets, using data from 25 published studies; and (2) the precision of estimates of the relative occurrence of common prey species in jaguar and puma diets, by sub-sampling from our own large datasets of genotyped scats (Foster et al. in press). Relative occurrence is defined as {number of prey items belonging to species X}/{total number of prey items} x 100. Species are considered common at ?5% occurrence in the diet.

Jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) are sympatric across the entire jaguar range, where they coexist in increasingly fragmented landscapes under threat of persecution mainly in response to livestock predation. Pumas are known to inhabit a greater variety of natural habitats than jaguars, but little is known about the influence of anthropogenic factors on the coexistence of these two similar-sized cats. This study compares habitat use of jaguars and pumas in Belize, Central America, using 1380 jaguar and puma photo captures from 3yr of camera trapping,comprising 64‐74 individual jaguars and an unknown number of pumas. Jaguars and pumas did not differ in their use of a large block of relatively homogenous secondary rain forest. However, pumas were scarce outside this forest block, whereas jaguars were detected throughout the human-influenced landscape. Reasons for this discrepancy may include differential tolerance to human disturbance, and resource limitation for pumas outside the forest block. Intra-specific variation in jaguar activity in the form of sex-dependent habitat use was detected across the landscape. Male jaguars were detected at more locations than female jaguars and more frequently at each location, with a declining difference from a 50-fold greater detection in the protected forest, through forest buffer, savannah, pastures, to negligible difference in the disturbed forest.

Closed population capture-recapture analysis of camera-trap data has become the conventional method for estimating the abundance of individually recognisable cryptic species living at low densities, such as large felids. Often these estimates are the only information available to guide wildlife managers and conservation policy. Capture probability of the target species using camera traps is commonly heterogeneous and low. Published studies often report overall capture probabilities as low as 0.03 and fail to report on the level of heterogeneity in capture probability. We used simulations to study the effects of low and heterogeneous capture probability on the reliability of abundance estimates using the Mh jack-knife estimator within a closed-population capture-recapture framework. High heterogeneity in capture probability was associated with under- and over-estimates of true abundance. The use of biased abundance estimates could have serious conservation management consequences. We recommend that studies present capture frequencies of all sampled individuals so that policy makers can assess the reliability of the abundance estimates.

Jaguars Panthera onca coexist with pumas Puma concolor across their entire range. In areas where they occur together their coexistence may be facilitated by differences in diet. This study compared food habits of jaguars and pumas in Belize, Central America, across a protected lowland rainforest and the neighbouring human-influenced landscape. Diets were determined from 362 jaguar scats and 135 puma scats, identified by genetic analysis. In the protected forest, dietary breadths were low for jaguars and pumas and showed little overlap. In this habitat each relied heavily on a single medium-sized (5–10 kg) prey species: armadillos Dasypus novemcinctus for jaguars, and pacas Agouti paca for pumas. Both cats also took larger prey (>10 kg), mainly white-lipped peccaries Tayassu pecari by jaguars and red brocket deer Mazama americana by pumas. In unprotected fragmented lands, jaguar scats rarely contained large wild prey species; rather, a diet of relatively small wild prey was supplemented with larger domestic species. Pumas did not take domestic species and were scarce outside the protected forest, possibly indicating competition with humans for pacas and deer, which are also prized game species in the region. This study is the largest analysis to date of sympatric jaguar and puma diets in both forest and farmland. We suggest that jaguar predation on cattle may be reduced by ensuring that game hunting is sustainable and potentially by augmenting forests within the human matrix with large wild ungulates. The supplementation could benefit both of the cat species, and the local game hunting economy.

Relative abundance indices are often used to compare species abundance between sites. The indices assume that species have similar detection probabilities, or that differences between detection probabilities are known and can be corrected for. Indices often consist of encounter frequencies of footprints, burrows, markings or photo captures along trails or transect lines, but the assumption of equal detection probabilities is rarely validated. This study analyzes detection probabilities of a range of Neotropical mammals on trails in dense secondary forests, using camera-trap and track data. Photo captures of the two large cats, jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor), were correlated solely with trail variables, while photo captures of their potential prey species had no correlation or negative correlation with trail variables. The Neotropical mammals varied greatly in their tendency to follow or cross trails based on footprints surveys. This indicates that camera locations on trails will have varying detection probability for these Neotropical mammals. Even the two similar-sized jaguars and pumas, occupying relatively similar niches, differed subtly in their use of trails. Pumas followed trails more completely while jaguars were more likely to deviate from trails. The ecological significance of these findings is that jaguars seem to be more willing to use the forest matrix away from trails than do pumas. We conclude that trail-based indices, such as photographic captures or tracks along trails, are not appropriate for comparison between Neotropical species, and not even between relatively similar species like jaguars and pumas.

We used extensive camera-trap surveys to study interindividual interactions among individually recognizable jaguars (Panthera onca) and plain-colored pumas (Puma concolor). Timed location data from a network of 119 trap stations in the Cockscomb Basin of Belize provide the 1st evidence of interspecific avoidance calibrated against intraspecific interactions among jaguars. Camera trapping has advantages over radiotelemetry in its potential to provide data on the complete array of individuals within the study area. The 23 individually identified male jaguars showed high levels of overlap in ranges, with up to 5 different males captured at the same location in the same month. Low levels of avoidance between individuals and a high flux of individuals contributed to low consistency in home-range ownership over the long term (3 months to 2 years). Jaguars and pumas had similar nocturnal activity schedules. Both species used similar habitats within the Cockscomb Basin, indicated by a high correlation in capture rates per location between species. Apart from their overall spatial similarities, jaguars and pumas avoided using the same location at the same time. This interspecific segregation was detectable over and above the spatial and temporal segregation of individual jaguars.

William F. Laurance (bill.laurance@jcu. edu.au) is a distinguished research professor and Australian laureate with the Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and with the School of Marine and Tropical Biology at James Cook University in Cairns, Queensland, Australia. D. Carolina Useche is a biodiversity and climate change researcher at the Alexander von Humboldt Institute on Biological Resources Colombia, in Bogota. Susan G. Laurance is a tropical leader and associate professor at James Cook University and president of the Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation. Corey J. A. Bradshaw is a professor with the Environment Institute and the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Adelaide, in Australia.

Background The agents of spotted fevers in Latin America are Rickettsia rickettsii, R. parkeri, Rickettsia sp. strain Atlantic rainforest, and R. massiliae. In Continental Central America, R. rickettsii remains the only known pathogenic tick-borne rickettsia. In the present study, ticks were collected from wild mammals in natural areas of Belize. Besides providing new data of ticks from Belize, we investigated rickettsial infection in some of these ticks. Our results provide ticks harboring rickettsial agents for the first time in Central America. Methods Between 2010 and 2015, wild mammals were lived-trapped in the tropical broadleaf moist forests of central and southern Belize. Ticks were collected from the animals and identified to species by morphological and molecular analysis (DNA sequence of the tick mitochondrial 16S RNA gene). Some of the ticks were tested for rickettsial infection by molecular methods (DNA sequences of the rickettsial gltA and ompA genes). Results A total of 84 ticks were collected from 8 individual hosts, as follows: Amblyomma pacae from 3 Cuniculus paca; Amblyomma ovale and Amblyomma coelebs from a Nasua narica; A. ovale from an Eira Barbara; A. ovale, Amblyomma cf. oblongoguttatum, and Ixodes affinis from a Puma concolor; and A. ovale, A. coelebs, A. cf. oblongoguttatum, and I. affinis from two Panthera onca. Three rickettsial agents were detected: Rickettsia amblyommii in A. pacae, Rickettsia sp. strain Atlantic rainforest in A. ovale, and Rickettsia sp. endosymbiont in Ixodes affinis. Conclusions The present study provides unprecedented records of ticks harboring rickettsial agents in the New World. An emerging rickettsial pathogen of South America, Rickettsia sp. strain Atlantic rainforest, is reported for the first time in Central America. Besides expanding the distribution of 3 rickettsial agents in Central America, our results highlight the possible occurrence of Rickettsia sp. strain Atlantic rainforest-caused spotted fever human cases in Belize, since its possible vector, A. ovale, is recognized as one of the most important human-biting ticks in the Neotropical region.