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Purpose Advancements in wireless sensor technology and building modelling techniques have enabled facilities managers to understand the environmental performance of the workplace in more depth than ever before. However, it is unclear to what extent this data can be used to predict subjective environmental comfort. This study aims to pilot test a methodological framework for integrating real-time environmental data with subjective ratings of environmental comfort. Design/methodology/approach An open-plan office was fitted with environmental sensors to measure key indoor environmental quality parameters (carbon dioxide, temperature, humidity, illumination and sound pressure level). Additionally, building modelling techniques were used to calculate two spatial metrics (“workspace integration” and workspace density) for each workspace within the study area. In total, 15 employees were repeatedly sampled across an 11-day study period, providing 78 momentary assessments of environmental comfort. Multilevel models were used to explore the extent to which the objective environmental data predicted subjective environmental comfort. Findings Higher carbon dioxide levels were associated with more negative ratings of air quality, higher “workspace integration” was associated with higher levels of distractions, and higher workspace density was associated with lower levels of social interactions. Originality/value To our knowledge, this is the first field study to directly explore the relationship between physical environment data collected using wireless sensors and subjective ratings of environmental comfort. The study provides proof-of-concept for a methodological framework for the integration of building analytics and human analytics.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to identify and discuss opportunities for health promotion through the workplace environment, adopting a ‘salutogenic’ perspective of health which more explicitly focuses on factors that support human health and wellbeing, as opposed to factors which cause disease. Design/Methodology/Approach: In the introduction, the salutogenic model of health and the Environmental Demands-Resources model are discussed, providing a conceptual framework to represent the workplace environment as a composite of pathogenic ‘demands’ and salutogenic ‘resources’. Subsequently, a narrative review is performed to discuss the existing literature from the perspective of this novel framework, identifying environmental resources which might strengthen the three components of an employee’s ‘sense of coherence’ (comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness), an individual orientation associated with more positive health outcomes. Findings: Comprehensibility can be supported by effectively implementing a clear set of rules governing the use of the workplace. Manageability can be supported through biophilic design solutions, and through design which supports social cohesion and physical activity. Meaningfulness can be supported by recognising the importance of personal identity expression and through design which reinforces the employees’ sense of purpose. Originality/Value: The salutogenic perspective is a potentially valuable but relatively under-considered paradigm in workplace practice. The key contribution of this paper is to encourage researchers and practitioners to recognise the crucial role that an individual’s sense of coherence plays in supporting higher levels of physical and mental health, so that they increase their ability to provide truly ‘healthy’ workplaces, capable of promoting health as well as minimising the risk of disease. The emerging healthy workplaces movement is primarily concerned with the pathogenic (harm-causing) potential of the office environment. The quality of the indoor workplace environment may contain numerous contributors towards ill health (see Al Horr et al., 2016, for review), partly as a result of the cost reduction paradigm which pervades workplace practice, in which space efficiency is prioritised above occupant requirements (Haynes, 2007a). As such, recent certification schemes for optimising heath and wellbeing in the built environment (e.g., the WELL Building Standard; International WELL Building Institute, 2018) largely focus on improving indoor environmental quality through strategies such as the minimisation of airborne pollutants and by reducing various sources of environmental discomfort. In this paper, we will argue that the mitigation of pathogenic environmental components is a necessary but not sufficient step towards the goal of providing truly healthy workplaces. We suggest that it is equally important to consider salutogenic (health-promoting) aspects of the workplace environment, in order to more suitably answer calls for more enabling paradigms in workplace practice (Haynes, 2007a). The distinction between harm-causing and health-promoting factors echoes the World Health Organisation’s (1948) definition of health as a “state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”, and also has parallels with the distinction between ‘languishing’ (the presence of mental illness) and ‘flourishing’ (the presence of positive emotions) in the positive psychology movement (Keyes, 2002). In recognition of the fact that the majority of workplace research has tended to be largely atheoretical and segmented by discipline (Sander et al., 2018), we believe future research and practice should be more explicitly designed in accordance with relevant conceptual frameworks. Accordingly, in this paper we explicate two conceptual frameworks to support understanding of the salutogenic potential of the workplace environment. First, we discuss the salutogenic model of health (Antonovsky, 1987), which has received good empirical support in healthcare disciplines. Second, we present the Environmental Demands-Resources (ED-R) model as a way of illustrating the pathogenic and salutogenic aspects of the workplace environment, and how they can be determined through the dynamic employee-workplace relationship.

Purpose There has been limited investigation into how “biophilic design” (i.e. the integration of nature within the built environment) can be effectively used within the workplace to facilitate the process of psychological restoration. The purpose of this study was to focus, in particular, on the effectiveness of biophilic “restoration pods” in promoting recovery from stress. Design/methodology/approach A randomised field experiment was conducted. A total of 32 employees from a participating organisation completed two tests replicating typical office work (proofreading and arithmetic) and subjective ratings of stress, anxiety and task-load both before and after a 10-minute micro-break, taken in either the regeneration pods (treatment group) or an ordinary meeting room (control group). Findings The results showed that participants who took their break in the regeneration pod reported lower post-break anxiety and perceived task-load, and higher post-break arithmetic task performance, than the control group. Practical implications The findings suggest that purpose-built spaces for restoration within office buildings will be effective for helping employees to proactively manage their stress levels while at work. Biophilic design principles will enhance the effectiveness of these spaces, and this does not necessarily need to involve direct exposure to plants or views of nature. Originality/value To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first randomised field experiment to test the effectiveness of a purpose-built space for restoration within offices. Additionally, this paper explores different forms of biophilic design than previous studies.

At present, workplace researchers lack a suitable methodology for combining objective indoor environmental quality (IEQ)data with repeated subjective assessments of comfort in real offices. To address this gap, we conducted a study at two office sites. Four IEQ parameters(carbon dioxide, temperature, humidity, and illuminance) werecontinuouslymonitored at each site, and brief environmental comfort surveys were sent to employees’ smartphones four times per day across the study period. In total, 45 employees across the two sites completed 536 surveys.The findings confirm that the repeated sampling approach is a more appropriate method for measuring comfort than a questionnaire delivered at one time only. Adherence to recommended temperatures reduced the risk of thermal discomfort, however this effect was weak and other predicted associations between the physical environment and environmental comfort were not supported. The results also showed a strong association between environmental comfort and self-rated productivity, such that employees rated themselves as most productive when they were satisfied with noise levels, temperature, air quality, and lighting within the office.Overall, the results highlight that it is critically important to consider strategies for optimising occupant comfort, although this is unlikely to be achieved through adherence to environmental comfort boundaries alone.

Purpose Open-plan office environments are considered to offer workplace productivity benefits because of the opportunities that they create for interaction and knowledge exchange, but more recent research has highlighted noise, distraction and loss of privacy as significant productivity penalties with this office layout. This study aims to investigate if the purported productivity benefits of open plan outweigh the potential productivity penalties. Design/methodology/approach Previous research suggests that office environments are experienced differently according to the gender and age of the occupier across both open-plan and enclosed configurations. Empirical research undertaken with office occupiers in the Middle East (N = 220) led to evaluations to establish the impact different offices had on perceived productivity. Factor analysis was used to establish five underlying components of office productivity. The five factors are subsequently used as the basis for comparison between office occupiers based on age, gender and office type. Findings This research shows that benefits and penalties to workplace productivity are experienced equally across open-plan and enclosed office environments. The greatest impact on perceived workplace productivity however was availability of a variety of physical layouts, control over interaction and the “downtime” offered by social interaction points. Male occupiers and those from younger generations were also found to consider the office environment to have more of a negative impact on their perceived workplace productivity compared to female and older occupiers. Originality/value The originality of this paper is that it develops the concept of profiling office occupiers with the aim of better matching office provision. This paper aims to establish different occupier profiles based on age, gender and office type. Data analysis techniques such as factor analysis and t-test analysis identify the need for different spaces so that occupiers can choose the most appropriate space to best undertake a particular work task. In addition, it emphasises the value that occupiers place on “downtime” leading to the need for appropriate social space.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to pilot test the effectiveness of the experience sampling approach for measuring employee satisfaction with the workplace environment. Additionally, the authors also aimed to explore, which aspects of environmental comfort have the strongest impact on momentary well-being and productivity.Design/methodology/approachIn total, 15 knowledge workers in an open-plan office environment were sent a brief survey (measuring environmental comfort, momentary well-being and perceived productivity) each day over an 11-day study period and provided 78 individual survey responses in total.FindingsAll but one of the measures on the survey had low test-retest reliability, indicating that employees’ experiences of environmental comfort varied significantly each time they completed the survey. Additionally, higher environmental comfort was associated with improved well-being and productivity.Practical implicationsThe results suggest that an experience sampling approach to the workplace occupant survey is justified to better capture the temporal variability in experiences of environmental comfort. The results also suggest that improving environmental comfort, particularly by reducing the level of distractions, will enable employees to work more productively.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first field study which has attempted to directly address limitations in traditional occupant surveys by using an experience sampling approach rather than a one-time-only questionnaire.

Purpose This paper aims to determine the extent to which employees’ experiences of acoustic comfort, well-being and productivity in open-plan offices are determined by specific characteristics (including demographic information, task characteristics, and personality traits). Design/methodology/approach A questionnaire was distributed to the occupants of three open-plan office sites and was completed by 166 employees in total. Findings The results indicated that acoustic comfort in open-plan offices is largely determined by noise sensitivity. Higher noise sensitivity was associated with more negative ratings of acoustical quality, more perceived disturbance by speech and more difficulties in concentration. More negative experiences were also reported by employees with lower interactivity with colleagues. Practical implications There is significant inter-individual variability in experiences of acoustic comfort, well-being and productivity in open-plan offices. As such, workplace practitioners should consider acoustic and behavioural solutions for introducing a greater diversity of functional workspaces within the office, so that employees can choose the most suitable working area for their requirements. Originality/value Whereas the majority of past acoustics research has been laboratory-based, this study is conducted in real office environments with a representative sample of knowledge workers.

Purpose – The paper aims to explore the relationship between office occupier work activity and workplace provision. It tests the proposition that location-fixed office workers are not as well-supported in the working environment as location-flexible office workers. The research also explores the perceptions of the workplace provision based upon the types of tasks completed at the desk-location, whether this was collaborative or focused. \ud Design/methodology/approach – The research adopts a cross-sectional approach using an online questionnaire to collect data from several offices in the Middles East. The dataset consists of 405 responses. One-way ANOVA was conducted to understand the relationship between location flexibility and perception of productivity. In addition, a series of T-Test were used to evaluate the relationship between work activities and office environment. \ud Findings – The results show that those workers who were location-fixed perceived the workplace provision to have a more negative impact on their productivity than those who had a greater level of location-flexibility, particularly with regards to noise levels and interruptions. In terms of types of activities, those that undertook more collaborative tasks valued the facilitation of creativity and interaction from the workplace provision.\ud Research limitations/implications – The research has limitations as data collection was at one-point in time and therefore lacks the opportunity to undertake longitudinal analysis. However, the research gives greater insights into the alignment of office environments based on flexibility and work activity. \ud Practical implications – The paper identifies implications for the design and development of office environments by identifying the need for office occupier activity profiles. These profiles can underpin data led design which should promote a tailored choice appropriate work setting that can maximise productivity. \ud Originality/value – This paper contributes to the research area of workplace alignment. It establishes that optimal workplace alignment requires a better understanding of office occupier needs based on location-flexibility and work activity.

© 2020 Elsevier Ltd This study aimed to investigate the associations between physical acoustic factors, job characteristics, and job satisfaction. Acoustic measurements and questionnaire surveys were conducted in 12 open-plan offices. Active noise levels (LAeq,8-hour), reverberation time (T20), and speech privacy-related measures such as D2,S and Lp,A,S,4m were measured at each office. A total of 324 employees then completed the online questionnaire surveys. The questionnaire assessed perceived speech privacy, noise disturbance, job characteristics, and job satisfaction. The measures of job characteristics involved skill variety, task identity, task significance, and autonomy. The results showed that active noise level (LAeq,8-hour) was negatively correlated with job satisfaction. Also, job satisfaction showed a negative correlation with speech privacy, whereas the relationship between job satisfaction and noise disturbance was not significant. It was also observed that the relationship between task identity and job satisfaction was moderated by the active noise level and speech privacy.

Purpose– The purpose of this study is to evaluate corporate real estate (CRE) performance measurement and how value can be added to the core business.Design/methodology/approach– An analysis is made of the appropriate literature and primary research conducted via interviews with 11 senior professionals from three globally renowned companies, one global financial organisation and two corporate advisory firms.Findings– The findings from this research provide evidence that CRE can be used to add value to the core business, both in the physical and behavioural environment. By aligning aims and objectives with the business, continually conducting portfolio analytics, encompassing size, cost, space, retention and productivity, value can be added, maximising shareholder worth.Research limitations/implications– The main conclusions drawn from this study are that CRE can add value to the business. The role of corporate real estate asset managers (CREAMs) needs to change from the physical environment to the behavioural environment, working to increase productivity, which can have greatest impact on shareholder value.Originality/value– This paper provides evidence to suggest that CRE ’s role is not only to manage property but should be broadened to add value to the organisation by aligning CRE strategy with the corporate strategy. Closer interactions with human resource and information technology are required to enhance productivity, via relationship management, perhaps outsourcing to provide best in industry expertise. CREAMs can shape the future of office space, by demanding carbon neutral properties. This paper recommends that further research should be conducted on the measurement of intangibles, like productivity and corporate social responsibility, and how they can be used to add value and sustainable saves.

This chapter focuses on predominantly on occupiers as tenants and the process of finding a 'good' landlord. It considers the financial implications of the procurement decision, including an examination of sale-and-leaseback transactions and a brief introduction to the impact of the continual consultations on the financial reporting of leases undertaken by the International Accounting Standards Board. The chapter explores the range of procurement options beyond the simple freehold v. leasehold decision and discusses their relative advantages and disadvantages. It examines the lack of customer focus in traditional real estate management as evidenced by the disappointing occupier satisfaction above, and discusses the drivers for a change of approach, and explains the contrasts between the traditional and customer-focused approaches. The decisions involved in deciding the route to corporate real estate (CRE) procurement have become more complex, given the changing business environment, the increased pace of change and some fundamental shifts in legal and accounting reporting requirements.

This chapter explores the history of Corporate Real Estate Asset Management (CREAM), its origins and the twists and turns that have led to its current significance, discipline, focus and scope. It sets out definitive definitions of CREAM and the associated disciplines that support it, and examines the knowledge and education that underpin it, which are inherently embedded within its contemporary remit. The chapter examines the definition and the '10P' model of CREAM. In 2008, the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) produced guidelines for asset management for the public sector. The alignment of the CREAM strategy to the corporate strategy with the aim of adding value and enhancing organisational performance is the focus of much research. CREAM integrates, directs and supports the strategic alignment of an organisation's business Processes, Purpose, Position and Paradigm with its underlying assets, including People and Places through appropriate Procurement of its working environment(s), which through sustainable solutions, supports the Planet.

The aim of this article is to provide a detailed research design for the measurement of perceived office productivity. This research adopts a positivist methodology and, in alignment with this, all the decision making involved in the research design will be made explicit. The main finding is a validated theoretical framework for the measurement of perceived office productivity; the components are comfort, office layout, interaction and distraction. This study establishes that the area of office productivity research is at a crucial stage. While previous research has largely concentrated on the impact of the physical environment on office occupiers' perceived productivity, this research broadens the debate to include components relating to the behavioural environment.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to evaluate approaches to office productivity improvements.Design/methodology/approachThe paper presents two contrasting approaches to office productivity improvements. The review aims to establish that cost is not the only consideration when considering office productivity. The human dimension is included in the debate along with creating a business case and the occupier perspective. Past and current thinking are explored.FindingsThe review of the literature reveals that relatively small increases in employee productivity can greatly outweigh significant reductions in real estate costs. This “leveraging” approach highlights the need for greater emphasis on the occupier perspective if significant office productivity improvements are to be made.Originality/valueWhilst it is appropriate to ensure that real estate costs are monitored and controlled, this should not be undertaken if it restricts employees' ability to perform their job as productively as possible.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to evaluate approaches to the measurement of office productivity.Design/methodology/approachThe author presents an historical context to office design and reviews appropriate literature. The review aims to establish the limitations in defining office productivity and the range of approaches to its measurement.FindingsThe review of the literature reveals that there is no universally accepted means of measuring office productivity but the researchers that have produced the most research evidence have tended to adopt a self‐assessment approach.Originality/valueThis paper establishes that the “people‐centred” approach to office evaluation is most appropriate for office workers with varying job tasks and allows the end‐user or occupier perspective to be established.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to demonstrate the role the behavioural environment plays in office productivity.Design/methodology/approachThe paper reviews the literature from the occupier perspective. This approach enables a greater appreciation of the social context of offices. The review establishes the need to link work process with the office environment. It identifies the need to understand how occupiers make sense of space through personalisation. The balance between the positive interactions in the office and negative distractions are explored.FindingsThe review of the literature reveals that by adopting the occupier perspective potential tensions can be identified between individual, private and team‐based collaborative work areas. These tensions can have an impact on the office occupier's productivity.Originality/valueThis paper establishes that to ensure office environments are designed for optimum productivity; consideration needs to be given to the role of the behavioural environment. Office environments need to be designed to enhance collaboration, whilst at the same time ensure individual private work is not compromised.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to provide a validated theoretical framework for the measurement of office productivity.Design/methodology/approachThe study's strength is that it is based on two sizable data sets. The data collected consists of data about the physical characteristics of the office environment and data pertaining to the behavioural environment.FindingsOne of the key contributions of this study was the development of the components of office productivity, which were: comfort, office layout, informal interaction points, environmental services, designated areas, interaction and distraction. The components were reduced to four in preparation for subsequent analysis. The four distinct components were comfort, office layout, interaction and distraction.Originality/valueThis study establishes that it is the behavioural environment that has the greatest impact on office productivity. It demonstrates that it is the dynamic elements of the office environment, interaction and distraction that are perceived as having the greatest positive and negative influences on self assessed productivity.

Applies service quality theory to facilities management (FM), resulting in a more customer‐orientated approach to FM. Uses a questionnaire as the main source of data collection. Uses factor analysis to establish basic underlying concepts or dimensions. Proposes a “gap” model which makes a comparison between service quality and the level of importance that customers place on each service dimension. The implications are that FM managers can use service dimensions to measure the qualitative elements of FM service provision. Segmentation analysis allows FM managers to determine whether different service levels are required for customer segmentation groups. Allows the concepts and theories that are currently applied in the service quality literature to be applied in an FM context. This moves the debate about FM performance metrics more towards measuring and understanding customer perceptions and ultimately to customer management strategies.

Despite well‐publicised successes and failures, the evidence base for the impact of a workplace on an organisation’s business performance remains small and confused. Theoretical perspectives are, with few exceptions, limited to matching physical environment to task. The concept from complexity theory of “edge of chaos” – a critical density of connectivity (Kauffman’s K) between the agents in a network in which adaptability is maximised – may explain how workplaces enable, or retard innovation. Formal rectilinear open plan offices are conceived as freezing occupants in a state of connectivity as low as traditional cellular designs. Offices without minimal acoustic or visual privacy (high K) may create chaotic stress and reversion as individuals seek to recreate safety. In between are offices known to have enhanced informal conversation between their occupants and resultant innovation.

Discusses how the traditional office design has become inappropriate for new ways of working and the changing nature of work. Drivers for change, in the office environment, are discussed in the context of the UK Government’s “Modernising Government” agenda. Provides a longitudinal study over 18 months of user reactions to a prototype “new” work space. Data was collected from a questionnaire, observation and electronically in an attempt to validate findings through triangulation. Results show that where the cultural shift required was largest uptake of new space was slowest.

Data were collected, by questionnaires, from facilities managers who attended BIFM CPD events. The research compared two main sources, organisations that had introduced teleworking (TWO), and organisations that had not yet introduced teleworking or non‐teleworking organisations (NTWO). The two different data sets allowed comparisons to be made between the perceived issues that related to the introduction of teleworking, i.e. the data from the non‐teleworking organisations, and the actual issues encountered when teleworking was introduced, i.e. the data from the teleworking organisations. The data analysis of the perceived issues versus the actual issues allowed an assessment to be made of the teleworking perception‐reality gap between the non‐teleworking organisations and the teleworking organisations.

Purpose: This paper aims to evaluate the relationship between corporate strategy and corporate real estate strategy Design/methodology/approach: The paper will identify, and evaluate, a number of components that collectively form the corporate real estate strategy. Linkages between the business environment, the aims and objectives of the organisation and the real estate solution will be explored. Findings: The paper will illustrate the alignment of the CRE strategy to the corporate strategy through the development of a corporate real estate alignment model. The model will demonstrate that only when optimum alignment is achieved can the corporate real estate strategy deliver added value and enhanced organisational performance. Practical Implications: CRE managers can use the model to evaluate the alignment of their CRE strategy with their corporate strategy Originality/Value: The paper fills a void by proposing a framework that seeks to identify the true impact of real estate to business by examining the benefits of optimal alignment between, planet, position, purpose, place, paradigm, processes and people to produce performance and productivity.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to consider the complex decision‐making process involved in corporate relocation and the validity of a tool designed to improve the objectivity and strategic management of this process and to change the focus of the decision upon the strategic management objectives rather than the real estate deal.Design/methodology/approachThe authors identify the progression of the decision‐making process; disaggregate components of that process; and evaluate a tool designed to improve the decision‐making process.FindingsThe size of the organisation can have a significant impact on the building evaluation and decision‐making process, smaller firms with less resources are more likely to make the relocation decision based on “gut feeling” rather than detailed evaluation. However, with increased transparency, accountability and corporate social responsibility, decisions based on more rigorous and objective approaches are being demanded. The evaluated tool facilitates a more objective approach and shifts the focus from a real estate to a business decision.Practical implicationsCorporate real estate managers can use the information to evaluate their own decision‐making processes against the framework of the tool and decide if it may be applicable to their context.Originality/valueThe paper fills a void by examining the decision‐making process from a fresh perspective, updates the thinking by providing a contemporary tool which has been beta tested with students and is about to be piloted with corporate clients.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to explore workplace implications of the changing workforce demographic.Design/methodology/approachThe author identifies the different generations in today's workforce. The workplace expectations of the different generations are explored.FindingsCorporate real estate (CRE) managers need to establish the different needs of the different generations. In addition, the CRE manager needs to create an environment that allows all generations to coexist in the same workplace.Practical implicationsCRE managers can use the information to assist in alignment of their workplace to the different generational expectations of the workforce.Originality/valueThe paper fills a void by evaluating office occupiers' workplace preferences based on age.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to evaluate the impact the workplace can have on knowledge working for a multi‐generational workforce.Design/methodology/approachA case study analysis is undertaken of Leeds City Council (LCC) workplace in the UK.FindingsThe findings from the study show that in the context of LCC there are some key differences between the generations regarding knowledge working preferences for formal/informal meeting spaces. In other aspects, such as knowledge sharing, the generations appear to agree on key aspects such as mentoring and team‐based working environments.Practical implicationsCorporate real estate managers can use the research findings to assist them in providing a range of workplace settings to enhance multi‐generational interaction.Originality/valueThis paper fills a gap in current research by evaluating workplace preferences based on generational differences.

The aim of this paper is to explore the linkages between corporate real estate, human resource management and business performance. Developing corporate real estate strategies in the current business environment has become an even more complex task. The implementation of flexible working, and the corresponding changes to human resource practices, highlights the increasing importance of establishing the right amount and type of organisational space. One clear issue developing is the need to understand the changing demographic trend. The possibility that four different generations could be working in the same office at the same time means that CRE solutions must allow Multigenerational working. The office environment must not only enhance productivity must also provide environments that facilitate health and wellbeing. Creating office environments that are both productive and also supportive of physical and mental health requires that the occupier perspective is established. This means that the linkages between the people and their workplace need to be made. A number of themes will be identified throughout this paper. These will include the relationship between corporate real estate management and human resource management, organisational culture, changing demographics and the how office space can used to enhance organisational performance.

Laboratory activities are indispensable for developing engineering skills. Computer Aided Learning (CAL) tools can be used to enhance laboratory learning in various ways, the latest approach being the virtual laboratory technique that emulates traditional laboratory processes. This new approach makes it possible to give students complete and genuine laboratory experiences in situations constrained by limited resources in the provision of laboratory facilities and infrastructure and/or where there is need for laboratory education, for large classes, with only one laboratory stand. This may especially be the case in countries in transition. Most existing virtual laboratories are not available for purchase. Where they are, they may not be cost friendly for resource constrained environments. Also, most do not integrate any form of assessment structure. In this paper, we present a very cost friendly virtual laboratory solution for genuine laboratory experiences in resource constrained environments, with integrated intelligent assessment.

PurposeThe aim of this paper is to evaluate the impact that office comfort has on office occupiers' productivity.Design/methodology/approachThe author evaluates the literature that claims to make a linkage between the physical comfort of the office environment and the effect on the productivity of the office occupiers. Office comfort will initially be discussed as a generic concept and subsequently be broken down into sub‐components.FindingsThe review of the literature reveals that the evaluation of office comfort is a complex one. There appears to be no universally accepted definition of office comfort, and there is a clear lack of agreement as to how office comfort should be measured. This paper establishes that, there is enough evidence to support the claim that office comfort can affect productivity.Originality/valueThis paper adds to the debate by identifying the need for a common and universally accepted measurement of office comfort. It is proposed that this can largely be achieved by evaluating office comfort with a multi‐item scale, and adopting an office occupier perspective to any future research.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to evaluate the impact office layout has on office occupiers' productivity.Design/methodology/approachThe paper evaluates the literature that claims to make a linkage between the office layout and the effect on office occupiers' productivity. Two main themes are developed. First, the literature that links office layout to work patterns is evaluated, and second, the open‐plan office vs cellular office debate is developed.FindingsThe review of the literature reveals that the connection between the three major components of office layout, office occupiers' work patterns and productivity is not clearly established.Originality/valueThe paper establishes that there is a requirement to link together office layout to the work patterns of office occupiers. It is only when the connection is made between the office layout and the office occupiers' work patterns that productivity gains can be achieved. To support the different work patterns undertaken, the facilities manager can create office environments that consist of a balance between private space and communal shared space. The amount of balance will be very much dependent on the mix of the work patterns in the office.

PurposeThis paper aims to establish if office occupiers, who adopt different work patterns, can be segmented based on differences of perceived productivity with regards to the physical environment and the behavioural environment.Design/methodology/approachComponents of office productivity were used in an office productivity model with categorical data enabling a unique opportunity to undertake an analysis of office occupiers by work process type.FindingsThe four distinct evaluative components used were comfort, office layout, interaction and distraction. The components were subsequently used for more detailed statistical analysis. This study establishes that statistical differences exist between the work styles under investigation.Research limitations/implicationsThis research establishes that to truly appreciate office productivity there is a need to further understand the way that people work in offices and their specific requirements. The matching of office occupier need with space provision can only be achieved if the office occupier is involved in the creation of the office solution.Originality/valueThis study demonstrates that there is a need to consider how the office environment matches the work patterns of the office occupiers. This understanding of how the office works could be considered as establishing the office landscape or “officescape”.