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The Etruscan shrew (Suncus etruscus) is one of the smallest mammals on earth and is used in many fields of research, including physiology, behavioral science and neuroscience. However, establishing and maintaining a breeding colony of this species in the laboratory can be challenging, as it requires specific husbandry conditions that greatly differ from those of more common laboratory species such as mice or rats. Over the past 15 y, we have successfully established a long-term thriving colony of 150 to 200 animals originating from 36 founders. The colony shows longer life expectancy and larger litter sizes than wild conspecifics. Breeding occurs year-round, independent of seasons, and a breeding pair can regularly produce 2 to 6 offspring with an average life expectancy of more than 3 y. The shrews are housed in glass or plastic enclosures on a specific soil-sand-mixture bedding and are provided with hideouts and nesting material consisting of moss, wood, or bark. Due to their high basal metabolic rate, the shrews require food intake greater than their body weight per day, can hunt arthropods as large as themselves, and cannot survive more than a few hours without food. Live feed such as crickets or mealworms is crucial and must be provided daily or, at the very least, every 2 d. Although our husbandry practices have constantly been adapted and refined, shrew husbandry remains challenging, and great care is necessary to meet the specific needs of this species. Here, we describe the establishment of a long-term stable colony of Etruscan shrews in a research animal facility and the specific husbandry requirements for animal wellbeing.

Population size, group composition and feeding ecology of the endemic and endangered Black-and-White Colobus Monkey (Colobus guereza gallarum) was investigated in Harenna Forest, South East Ethiopia by using the line-transect method in 10 selected blocks. During the dry and wet seasons, a mean number of 212 and 246 C. g. gallarum individuals was recorded, respectively. Also, the number of groups of the animal was higher in wet (36) than dry (31) season, but statistically insignificant (P= 0.447). Out of the recorded C. g. gallarum, 25.98% were adult males; 32.53% adult females; 14.85% sub-adult male, 11.14% sub-adult female and 15.50% were juveniles/young. Young leaves were the largest (35.1%) contributor to the diet of guereza followed by shoots (22.1%) in both seasons. Other common items were included mature leaves (20.6 %), bark (17.7%), fruit (2.8%) and flower (1.7%). C. g. gallarum were observed feeding on 19 plant species belonging to 12 families. The highest contribution of the diet was from the family Rosaceae (41.67%), while family Fabaceae, Moraceae and Myrsinaceae were contributing 50% of the diet. Schefflera volkensii was the most consumed plant species which accounted for 7.96%, followed by Urera hypselodendron (7.83%) and Dombeya torrida (7.06%). Moreover, C.g.gallarum mainly forage on leaves particularly young leaves, and their foraging activities depend inside the forest. Thus, to maintain sustainable conservation of the endemic C.g.gallarum in the area, their habitats should be properly protected, and appropriate monitoring strategies should be designed.

Climate change is one of the major threats to biodiversity, but its impact varies among the species. Bark beetles (Ips spp.), as well as other wood-boring pests of European forests, show escalating numbers in response to the changes driven by climate change and seriously affect the survival of the forests through the massive killing of trees. Many methods were developed to control these wood-boring beetles, however, their implementation can be detrimental for other forest specialists. Ants are widely used for biological pest-control, so in our study, we aimed to test the effect of Formica polyctena on the control of the wood-boring beetles. The results show that the proportion of infested trees is significantly reduced by the increase of the number of F. polyctena nests, with a strong effect on those infested by Ips species. We also show that the boring beetle community is shaped by different biotic and abiotic factors, including the presence of F. polyctena nests. However, the boring beetle infestation was not related to the latitude, altitude and age of the forests. Based on our results, we assert the effectiveness of the red wood ants as biological pest control and the importance of their conservation to keep the health of the forests.

This study investigated the impact of small rodents on young trees during three growing seasons (2018–2020) in the Czech Republic. Tree damage by small rodents, the quantity and quality of herbaceous plant biomass and the species composition of small mammals were monitored at two sites in European beech forest plantations. The number of trees damaged during three growing seasons correlated positively with fibre content and negatively with nitrogen content in herbaceous plant biomass. The importance of winter precipitation is reflected in the positive correlation with nitrogen content in herbaceous plant biomass. The observed tree-gnawing damage correlated positively with the abundance of one rodent species only—the bank vole. The highest damage occurred after the concurrence of a dry winter and a higher number of voles. Given current climate variability, this situation could become more common in the future. Gnawing may be a limiting factor for the successful restoration of trees with thin bark—in our case, European beech. In addition, the proportion of this woody species should be increased to achieve a more stable and closer composition in the Czech Republic.

Outbreaks of Ips typographus (L.) caused by catastrophic natural phenomena in Central Europe, Siberia and the Far East have been the subject of numerous scientific studies. Molecular methods were used to analyze the relationships and origin of Ips species. The review article shows in detail the biological characteristics of I. typographus, such as the effect of temperature on vital parameters and flight behavior. It was found that the spruce bark beetle disperses within 500 m. However, new attacks occur in the immediate vicinity of the old foci. The susceptibility and protection mechanisms of trees are critical to a successful bark beetle attack. The newly attacked trees react with preformed resin, reactions to wounds, and, ultimately, systemic changes in physiology. The risk assessment in the studies was carried out both at the tree level and at the forest level as a whole. The risk of an attack of I. typographus is associated with the growth of the forest in a particular area, age, the flow of nutrients and water to the tree. The dynamics of outbreaks, to a large extent, depend on the abundance of I. typographus, susceptibility of trees, weather conditions and phytosanitary measures. Bark beetle I. typographus is an integral component of any forest ecosystem. It colonize weakened, weak or dead trees, and thus begins the decomposition of bark and wood. This pest is able to use short-lived resources and quickly multiply to extremely large numbers, for example, after winds. In such epidemic situations, I. typographus can pose a serious threat to spruce-rich forests, especially for stands planted outside their optimal range. The spatial development of I. typographus infections can be analyzed using GIS and multiple regression methods to investigate potential correlations between climatic, specific and phytosanitary factors and infection dynamics. Also, the article discusses various methods of forest control and emphasizes the need for more sophisticated risk assessment tools. For citation: Pirtskhalava-Karpova N.R., Karpov A.A., Kozlovski E.E., Grishchenko M.Yu. Protection of Spruce Forests from Outbreaks of Ips typographus (Review). Lesnoy Zhurnal [Russian Forestry Journal], 2021, no. 4, pp. 55–67. DOI: 10.37482/0536-1036-2021-4-55-67

Production forestry is known to reduce the naturally variable microhabitat pools in live trees and their biodiversity by tree removal and broad indirect effects of silviculture. However, the tree-scale processes are not known well enough for microhabitat management for the future. This study investigates how tree age affects the microhabitat occurrence in live trees, its effect modifiers, and explanatory value compared with tree diameter. We inventoried tree-related microhabitats on 879 live aspens (Populus tremula) and Norway spruces (Picea abies) of known age in 141 forests representing contrasting productive site conditions in Estonia. We analysed microhabitat incidence using logistic mixed models for significant tree-scale and stand-scale factors. Most microhabitat types appeared rare even in old trees, and the age effects had various patterns. Only 2% of trees bore five or more microhabitat types. Aspens and spruces had a similar microhabitat diversity before 80 years of age. Stand-level effects varied among microhabitat types but were less significant than tree-level effects; interactions were even rarer. Most effects found could be interpreted through known ecological processes; for example, humidity-dependent epiphytic growth; bark stripping by herbivores; pathogen effects in forests with distinct histories. In contrast, a reliable tree-scale prediction of microhabitat occurrence appears rarely possible; and depending on microhabitat type, either tree age or diameter can be a better predictor. We suggest that managing for tree-related microhabitats in production forests should combine facilitating ecological conditions for microhabitat formation, and early detection and retention of the trees with high microhabitat potential.

El nogal común (Juglans regia L.) posee una madera tradicionalmente demandada por el mercado europeo, pero a nivel nacional no existe una cultura de uso de esta madera, por lo que las trozas obtenidas en los raleos se pierden como desecho. Para resolver este problema se desarrolló una investigación con el objetivo de evaluar el rendimiento en el aserrío de trozas de raleo de nogal y desarrollar una propuesta de clasificación para las piezas aserradas obtenidas. Se utilizaron 74 trozas, con edades entre 7 y 11 años. Se determinó el volumen de madera que ingresó al aserradero, utilizando la fórmula de cubicación de trozas de Smalian, luego se aserraron las trozas obteniendo piezas con caras lisas y cantos muertos, de las cuales se obtuvieron tablillas de escuadrías variables, a las que se les determinó el volumen, con lo que se pudo calcular el rendimiento del proceso. Además, para analizar los defectos en las trozas y su relación con el rendimiento, estas se dividieron en dos grupos, utilizando una norma brasileña de clasificación de trozas. Junto a lo anterior, se desarrolló una clasificación para estas tablillas utilizando como base la normativa chilena, basada en el criterio visual. Como resultado se obtuvo un rendimiento del 15,14 %, con tablillas de volúmenes entre 0,0011 y 0,0051 m3 por tablilla, clasificadas en tres grupos, concluyéndose que es posible obtener madera aserrada a partir de trozas de raleo de plantaciones jóvenes.

Bombax costatum est une espèce agroforestière menacée de disparition du fait des fortes pressions anthropiques qu’elle subit par le prélèvement de son calice. La présente étude a pour objectif d’évaluer l’influence des modes d’affectation des terres sur les caractéristiques dendrométriques, les types morphologiques et la phénologie de B. costatum dans la Réserve de biosphère de la Pendjari (RBP). Quatorze placeaux de 200 m × 200 m répartis dans quatre modes d’affectation des terres (zone d’occupation contrôlée, chaîne de l’Atacora, zone cynégétique de la Pendjari et Parc national de la Pendjari) de la RBP ont été inventoriés. Les données telles que le diamètre à hauteur de poitrine, la hauteur totale, le nombre d’individus, l’aspect de l’écorce et la couleur des fleurs ont été collectées. Les caractéristiques structurales de B. costatum ont été évaluées à trois niveaux : les paramètres dendrométriques dont la densité, le diamètre moyen, la surface terrière et la hauteur moyenne ; les structures en diamètre ; la distribution de fréquence des différents types morphologiques obtenus (aspect de l’écorce, couleur de la fleur). Pour tester les différences entre les modes d’affectation des terres, une ANOVA, une analyse log-linéaire et une analyse de covariance ont été effectuées respectivement sur les paramètres dendrométriques et les types morphologiques suivant les modes d’affectation des terres. Le mode d’affectation des terres a un effet significatif (P

Forests have been decreasing in number and volume constantly since the oldest detectable date. Although human behaviors constitute the main responsible factor for this decrease, pests, such as insects, fungi, etc. also cause significant destruction in this respect. Approximately 50 harmful insect species are effective in our country's forests every year, and the control against these pests is carried out in about 500 thousand hectares of land. It is vital that authorities become aware of the threats occurring in forest areas, such as fires, insect outbreaks, etc., as soon as possible and initiate the control with the support of the public. There is a need to increase the level of knowledge and awareness of all segments of the society in this regard. On the other hand, tools, such as facilities established in forest areas, traps, and bird nests in forest areas to control pests, should also be protected, or at least not damaged by people living in the environment or by those somehow visiting these areas. In recent years, it has been observed that insects, which cause more damage to forests more than fires, have caused significant economic losses in forest enterprises. These harmful bark beetles cause great destruction and loss of wealth in spruce forests in Artvin region, which is one of the most damaged places in this respect. In this study, the province of Artvin where insect damage is experienced was selected. The methods of combating forest pests that damage spruce trees of the forestry organization working in the province of Artvin and their management methods have been examined and evaluated. The effects of the changes in the forest organization structure on the combat management and the situation in the legal legislation have been examined. In addition, a survey was conducted with 100 people to learn about the behavior and attitudes of the local people on this issue. Authorities must first act with the people of the area to be successful in protecting forests. People of the area should be informed about the control carried out by the forest administration, and their contribution should be considered. In this way, the level of success will increase in this control. In addition, a more effective forest organization structure is required for a successful control.

Loss of drilling fluid is a common problem during the drilling of wells and it restricts the appropriate functionality of muds. Drilling fluid loss significantly increases drilling costs and non-productive time as well as increasing the drilling operation risks. Various investigations have been carried out in order to find appropriate mud additives that either block fractures and pores or reduce fluid loss by improving the fluid rheology. Cheap, environmentally friendly and effective additives are still required by the drilling industry. Hence, the application of available materials in each region, to produce appropriate additives, is a challenge for the oil industry. In this study, Eucalyptus Camaldulensis (EUC) bark powder has been chosen as a new, fibrous, cheap, environmentally friendly and available material to control fluid loss, particularly in southern Iran. Different characterization tests, such as acid dissolution and fluid loss control, were carried out to study the performance of the new proposed additive. Removal by hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid were studied at various acid concentrations and temperatures. Dynamic fluid loss was also measured at different EUC concentrations. Our study showed that EUC powder can reduce the final fluid loss by 88–97%, the initial fluid loss by 45–66%, and the total loss by 87–94%, which is a satisfactory level.

The explorer Ludwig Leichhardt travelled with Aboriginal people in south-east Queensland during 1843–44. Leichhardt’s record of Aboriginal taxonomy in Yagara, Wakka, Kabi, and other languages was related to the current taxonomy of the eucalypts of south-east Queensland. Most of the taxonomic entities could be associated across cultures and verifies the intimate understanding of Aboriginal peoples with tree species that are difficult to distinguish in the field. Leichhardt’s record together with that of Gairabau, a Dungidau man from south-east Queensland verifies a broad array of uses for eucalypts including as gum for chewing, dying, and medicine; ash rubbed into the skin for soothing young mothers, where bees, honey and wax can be found, hollow logs for fish-traps, hard timber for weapons and utensils, bark for shelter, canoes, embalming, and containers – some species contained water, others were used to create smoke for sending signals, some species indicated an unsuitable camp-site, and others indicated the likelihood of finding koalas and possum as game. Flowering and the shedding of bark are signs for the bush calendar.Warning: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander readers are advised that this article contains the names and images of deceased persons.

Introduction The data on forest pathological processes dynamics in the stands managed by the state forestry enterprises were generalized in the study. The results indicate a gradual increase in the scale of pathological processes and, accordingly, an increase in the amount of sanitary measures taken in the stands. In recent years, especially in Western and Central Polissia in Ukraine, there has been a massive dying of pine stands caused by invasion of apical bark beetles. As a result,there is a significant increase in sanitation felling. Outbreaks of stem pests occurred along with chronic root rot foci, periodic fires, windbreaks, windthrows, and snowbreaks. Deterioration of pine stands occurs due to their simplified structure and is brought about by climate change. Significant areas of the pine stands covered with large-scale pathological processes and major material losses point at a necessity to reduce the stands’ maturity age. The aim of the research was to determine the age range of pathological processes in pine stands. Materials and Methods Changes in the condition of the pine stands in Volyn Region were observed for the period 1992–2018 by means of the database information analysis as of every third year since 1994. The collected data include the areas of the stands with certain pathological processes, their assessment indicators, the reasons which initiated a pathological process, and forestry measures and their consequences. The forestry enterprises specialists determined the reasons for the deterioration of the condition of the stands. The list included about 60 different factors, some of which were grouped together. To assess the extent of pathological processes, the area of one or another dying species as a percentage of the total area covered by it was considered as follows: 0.1–2.4% – weak; 2.5–5.0% – average; 5.1–10.0% – strong; 11–15% – very strong; 15.1–20.0% – critical; > 20.0% – ecological catastrophe. The general age dynamics of the pine stands was determined as of 2011 according to the Forest Fund of Ukraine and compared with the age dynamics of the pine stands with pathological processes. Results The vast majority of the pine stands in Volyn Region was established in the 1950s–60s. These are mainly pure in composition or nearly pure stands of natural and artificial origin (80–100 % of pine) which cover respectively 73.2 % and 80.6 % of the area. Among the stands of different species in which pathological processes were observed as of 2018 in the forests of Volyn Region, pine stands occupy more than 80 %. In the total forest area of Volyn Region pine plantations make 57 %. The data show that the dying pine stands make 15 % of all pine stands. A proportion of pine stands with pathological processes in the total area of dying stands exceeds the percentage of pine-covered areas by 24 %. The general dynamics of the area of pine stands dying in one or another degree for the period 1994–2018 shows that from 2000 to 2009 their area varied from 4,700 ha to 5,500 ha, which points at a low resistance to pathological processes. Since 2012, the scale of pathological processes had increased and as of 2018 reached almost 34 thousand hectares due to an outbreak of apical bark beetle (Ips acuminatus). In general, during all the years of observation, the main factor initiating dying of the pine stands in Volyn Region was root rot by Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. The most severe wind damage to the pine stands took place in the periods as of 2000 (467 ha – 8.7 %), 2003 (114 ha – 2 %) and 2009 (655 ha –14 %). Damage of pines of Volyn Region by fires was noted in the period 2000–2009 and the worst large-scale fires took place as of 2000 – 449 hectares (8 % of the area of all stands died in this period). Damage to root systems and overgrowth of crown branches can many times exceed the area of pine trees with visible signs, which, in our opinion, may be the basis for the spread of apical bark, the stock of which is always in chronic foci of root rot by Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref., whose area since 2000 reaches 3,500–4,000 ha. The scale of distribution of forest pathological processes in the pine stands of different age classes shows that the largest part of dying forests are stands of VI and VII age classes: 41% and 24%, respectively. On the other hand, the percentage of areas of all pine stands of VI and VII age classes in the total distribution of pine trees by age classes is significantly lower: by 26% and 15%, respectively, indicating a low biological resistance of artificial pine stands older than 50 years old. Conclusions As of 2012, the area of dying pine stands in Volyn Region increased sharply due to a mass reproduction of apical bark beetle (Ips acuminatus) and in 2018 it reached almost 34,000 ha. The largest percentage of the pine stands dying to one or another degree are stands of VI and VII age classes (41 % and 24 %), and the percentage of areas of all pines of VI and VII age classes in the general distribution of pines by age classes in Volyn Region is significantly smaller, respectively 26 % and 15 %, which indicates a low biological resistance of artificial pine stands at this age, and a necessity to reduce age of felling of such stands to 51–70 years. From the pine stands of I–VI age classes in Volyn Region, 70–90 % were established artificially; more than 80% of them were pure or nearly pure in composition. About 48 % of all pines in Volyn Region are vulnerable to pathological processes. 3 Figs., 3 Tables, 11 Refs. Key words: pathological processes, Scots pine forests, forest decline, root rot, Ips acuminatus.

Ecologically and economically harmful wood borers and bark beetles, which have the capacity to expand geographically through the international log trade, require mitigations to prevent their spread. Detailed phenological knowledge of these pests across the wood-product supply chain can support systems approaches to phytosanitary risk management. Forest insect activity from 3.5 years of monthly, fortnightly, and daily sampling in recent clearfells from eight Pinus radiata plantation regions throughout New Zealand is presented. Phenology varied regionally with some species absent from specific regions. Insect activity declined with postharvest duration to a hypothesised background activity level that may be determined by landscape dispersal processes. Maximum temperature was the strongest predictor of flight activity with a 15 °C threshold that increased the probability of flight. Probability of a flight event was calculated for each species at monthly, fortnightly, and daily periods. Although wintertime activity was low, operationally effective temporal periods of low pest prevalence could not be defined on a monthly basis. Assurance of temporal periods of low pest prevalence as part of a systems approach will require additional supporting evidence of the relationship between forecast weather on short temporal scales (days), the probability of flight, and the relationship between low-level flight activity and the risk of wood product infestation by dispersing insects.

Seasonality influences the abundance and activity of forest insects. Harvesting during periods of reduced activity could minimise colonisation risk on logs and reduce the need for phytosanitary treatments. We describe the winter colonisation dynamics of Pinus radiata logs in operational harvest sites in New Zealand and assess the probability of log colonisation as a function of captures in flight interception traps. After 15 days, 3% and 1% of logs were colonised by Hylastes ater and Hylurgus ligniperda (Coleoptera: Scolytinae), respectively, and 1% by Xenocnema spinipes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). The same three species were captured in traps. Our observations showed that logs exposed for ≥ 2 weeks are predicted to have a more than 1% probability of bark beetle colonisation, whereas logs removed from forests within 24 or 48 h had predicted colonisation rates of 0.13% and 0.26%, respectively. A positive relationship between trap capture and log colonisation was also observed. Average catches of 98% log colonisation. A positive relationship was also shown between log colonisation rates and temperature. A 12.3 °C temperature threshold predicted colonisation rates of 5, 50 and 95% with thermal sums of 10, 20 and 30 degree-hours, respectively. Models based on exposure time, trap catches, or environmental factors can estimate seasonal probability of insect colonisation, which aids identification of periods of low pest pressure when treatments could be avoided or reduced.

Long rotation period of trees and complex trading procedures of wood, are major impediments in spread of agroforestry. Thus, alternative for providing early return to farmers along with long term benefits of raising trees on their farmlands are necessary. Generally, ~ 25% of the trees can be used as timber while the other parts viz. bark, leaves, roots, branches etc. have limited use and are often burnt. In process, leakage of C sequestration potential of trees is reduced. But, tree twigs and leaves can be the potential source of bioactive compounds or secondary metabolites especially in arid region. Vegetation in arid regions possesses very special and unique chemicals which help them to adapt to prevailing harsh conditions. Water stress in these vegetation leads to production of high quantity of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which through a series of pathways eventually leads to higher production of certain special secondary compounds. These compounds, in nature improve defense mechanism of trees, but also have immense pharmaceutical, food, cosmeceutical, nutraceutical and agrochemicals value. They are locally used as folklore medicine but their commercial exploitation can provide short term benefits to farmers. Also, unlike bole, which can be exploited only once, these benefits from trees can be exploited many times during their growing period. Therefore, in this article research work on important secondary metabolites produced by major agroforestry systems of arid region of India has been reviewed along with their industrial applications.

Large sugar pine mortality was associated with recent growth and defense measures. Many old-growth pine forests across the western United States have encountered widespread and concerning increases in tree mortality attributed to increased competition and reduced vigor associated with prolonged fire exclusion that can make trees more vulnerable to bark beetles. We investigated the importance of growth and resin duct defense on recent mortality of large sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) in a fire-excluded, mixed-conifer forest of the Sierra Nevada, in California, USA. Growth and defense were measured from tree rings for 33 pairs of live and dead sugar pine. The 10-year trend in basal area increment prior to sampling declined by 1.78 cm2 year− 1 in sugar pine that died and increased by 0.34 cm2 year− 1 in paired live sugar pine. The 10-year trend in resin duct total area showed declines of 0.0154 mm2 year− 1 in trees that died and increases of 0.0068 mm2 year− 1 in trees that survived. The most informative models of large sugar pine mortality included measures of both growth and defense. The top model included the trends of basal area increment and resin duct total area 10 years before mortality, and growth variability 5 years before mortality. In general, trends and variability in growth and defense over shorter time windows (

Mango stem borer has been observed to cause an alarming situation in old and young orchards posing a great threat to mango cultivation in India during the last decade. Five species of Batocera namely B.rufomacuata de Geer, B.rubus Linnaus, B.roylie Hope, B.numitor Newmen and B.titana Thompson have been reported infesting mango trees. Among them, B. rufomaculata, is increasingly becoming a menace in mango orchards across the country. The infestation is reported to be in the range of one to eight per cent depending upon maintenance of the orchards. Affected trees gradually loose their vigour, manifest drying of branches to in severe cases and even death ensues. The grubs are the damaging stage, they bore and eat below the bark, making tunnels, subsequently entering into main stem following feeding on wood causing damage. The fross coming out of the entry point indicates the presence of trunk borer in the mango tree. The severe damage results in yellowing of branches followed by drying of terminal shoots and branches ultimately leading to the death of whole tree, if not managed properly. This paper presents a detailed review of informations on their symptoms of damage, distribution, varietal reactions, alternate hosts, life history and the control measures.

Muchos artrópodos, incluidos los escorpiones, son carnívoros, pero se desconocen los hábitos alimentarios de muchas especies. Se sabe que se alimentan principalmente de artrópodos e incluyen también anélidos y pequeños vertebrados. Potencialmente varias especies de escorpiones son depredadores de mamíferos, pero no hay ningún informe de consumo de murciélagos por escorpiones. Nuestro objetivo es reportar un evento de alimentación de un murciélago mastín de Pallas (Molossus molossus) por el escorpión de corteza de Centroamérica (Centruroides exilimanus) en el sur de Honduras. Para documentar este evento, tomamos fotografías de los especímenes y la hora en que ocurrió el evento. Hay varios edificios y oficinas en la mina Clavo Rico en El Corpus, Choluteca, Honduras donde hemos observado tres colonias de murciélagos. Esta mina está ubicada en el bosque húmedo tropical. El 20 de octubre de 2015 a las 11:42 h, encontramos un escorpión que arrastraba un M. molossus desde el techo de un edificio. El escorpión probablemente encontró o capturó al murciélago dentro del techo, y ya se había comido partes de la cabeza cuando lo encontramos. Una vez en el suelo, el escorpión arrastró al murciélago debajo del piso del edificio. Los escorpiones pueden depredar vertebrados, aunque no se observó el proceso de depredación tampoco han sido reportados casos de consumo de murciélagos muertos por escorpiones y no se conocen casos de depredación de murciélagos por estos artrópodos. Los murciélagos molósidos descansan en grandes grupos incluso en sitios donde los escorpiones pueden acceder fácilmente. El murciélago era mucho más pesado que el escorpión, por lo que, si este es un evento de depredación, demuestra las extraordinarias capacidades de un artrópodo con un potente veneno.

This paper is intended as an assessment of the state of knowledge and development of semiochemical methods for control of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in western North America and as a roadmap for future research and development in this field. It is based on a keynote presentation given at the symposiumManaging Bark and Ambrosia Beetles with Semiochemicals, held in 2018 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, at the Joint Meeting of the Entomological Society of America, the Entomological Society of Canada, and the Entomological Society of British Columbia. We describe currently available active ingredients, formulations, and release devices. Furthermore, we describe the most urgently needed new products and techniques, and constraints to their further development. Finally, we speculate about opportunities afforded by new advances in microbial synthesis of semiochemicals, streamlining of regulatory processing, and aerial application using unmanned aerial vehicles.

This article argues that in qualitative research into the work of a regulator, it is as important to watch out for that regulator’s omissions and silences as it is to examine what the regulator does and says. The argument is illustrated by data drawn from a study of the Independent Custody Visiting Scheme, the purpose of which is (or should be) to safeguard detainees and to deter police from misconduct which might lead to deaths in custody. Research into the scheme included using the technique of watching out for what the visitors did not do and did not say. The data obtained by this method are interpreted through the lens of Lukes’ theory of power to suggest that this watchdog has been debarked as a result of the power of the police.

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is a major production tree species for the European wood industry. However, it is highly sensitive to bark stripping (BS) by red deer (Cervus elaphus L.), which causes large timber losses. Because the red deer population has increased over the last decades, a better understanding of the underlying causes driving BS is urgently needed. BS outbreaks are multifactorial: winter food shortage, local and regional deer abundance and stand properties (thermal and visual cover, and scarcity of herbaceous layers) have been found to drive BS rates. Although the influence of each of these factors is well studied, there is still no consensus on their relative contributions to BS or what mitigation strategy is best. In this study, we made use of a long-term, large-scale BS inventory (13 years over 2570 km2) to fill these gaps. We modeled winter and summer BS rates in response to the most explanatory variables, selected from a large set of environmental variables. Our results highlight the prevalence of deer abundance combined with high sensitivity of coniferous thickets and pronounced habitat selection by deer for these stands. Our findings show that the control of red deer populations is a key measure for reducing BS in Norway spruce stands.

This study aims to determine the conditions and patterns of utilization of snails in the Penyengat island waters, Riau Island, Indonesia. The method used was purposive sampling of 5 stations with 70 x 2 m quadratic transect for the density of the Gonggong Snail. The results found two types of snail bark species namely Laevistrombus turturella and Strombus urceus with a total density value of 0.114individual per m². The use of snail bark patterns in Penyengat Island waters, namely the size of the catch is medium to large, manual capture techniques (collected by hand), the catching area in the waters of the island is 100-200 m from the beach, the most catches found >100 individuals, season and time of catching snail barks at stinging island waters are not based on season, utilization and distribution of utilization. The snail bark resource is used for consumption and sold to collectors.

Forests in the western United States are being subject to more frequent and severe drought events as the climate warms. The 2012-2015 California drought is a recent example, whereby drought stress was exacerbated by a landscape-scale outbreak of western pine beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis) and resulted in widespread mortality of dominant canopy species including ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). In this study, we compared pairs of large surviving and beetle-killed ponderosa pines following the California drought in the southern Sierra Nevadas to evaluate physiological characteristics related to survival. Inter-annual growth rates and tree-ring stable isotopes (∆13C and δ18O) were utilized to compare severity of drought stress and climate sensitivity in ponderosa pines that survived and those that were killed by western pine beetle. Compared to beetle-killed trees, surviving trees had higher growth rates and grew in plots with lower ponderosa pine basal area. However, there were no detectable differences in tree-ring ∆13C, δ18O, or stable isotope sensitivity to drought-related meteorological variables. These results indicate that differences in severity of drought stress had little influence on local, inter-tree differences in growth rate and survival of large ponderosa pines during this drought event. Many previous studies have shown that large trees are more likely to be attacked and killed by bark beetles compared to small trees. Our results further suggest that among large ponderosa pines, those that were more resistant to drought stress and bark beetle attacks were in the upper echelon of growth rates among trees within a stand and across the landscape.

Greater racket-tailed drongos are renowned for their splendid mimicking abilities, and for their significant roles within mixed species flocks in the Old World tropics. Yet, we know little about their basic ecology and breeding behaviour. Here we describe a set of unique behaviours of these drongos during their nesting season. Racket-tailed drongos nested in trees in an open patch of forest, often returning to the same tree year after year. The nesting pair also smoothened the bark of the nest tree trunk with their beaks. These findings suggest that the nest tree is a crucial resource for this species, and have implications for the cognitive abilities of drongos, as well as for hitherto unknown interactions between an avian species and tropical forest trees.

Indigenous loanwords comprise an important component of the lexicons of the Englishes of former British colonies. Often these words are used as placenames, which are in turn transported across the ...

Carissa edulisis a plant of 5m high at maturity. It grows in the Savannah woodlands of Uganda and is commonly found on ant-hills.Carissa edulisis used as a remedy for treatment of headache, chest complains, rheumatism, oedema, gonorrhea, syphilis, sickle cell anaemia, cough, ulcer, tooth-ache, and worms. Poor harvesting methods of Carissa edulis for medicine such as uprooting the whole plant threatens its existence.Its seeds are scarce because ants, birds and animals eat them hence propagation by seed is a challenge.Carissa edulishas not been in cultivation therefore its most suitable propagation method is unknown. These create the need to explore the most appropriate propagation method forCarissa edulisas a means of capturing its germplasm from the wild for purposes of its domestication, conservation and continuous availability to the communities. An experiment was conducted at the National Forestry Resources Research Institute, Uganda with an objective of investigating the best method of propagatingCarissa edulisusing stem cuttings. The cuttings were categorized into softwood, semi-hardwood and hardwood cuttings and 50 of each treated with Indole-butyric acid (IBA) in concentrations of 0.6 w/w and 0.8 w/w plus a control and replicated 3 times.The rooting media used included: sterilized sand and soil and milled Pine bark (soaked in water for a night). Results showed the best method for propagation ofCarissa edulisis by use of softwood stem cuttings treated with IBA rooting hormone of 0.8 w/w and placed in sterilized Sand as propagation medium.

The development of the mining industry has led to the appearance in many parts of the world of vast technogenic territories from which toxic heavy metals enter the environment and food chains. Physical, chemical, and biological methods of cleaning industrial land due to technological complexity and high cost are relatively little used on a large scale. Natural forest overgrowth of mining sites and the removal of heavy metals by woody plants can be an effective form of recovery. Therefore, the study of this process is of significant scientific and practical interest. The analysis of the annual growth in height and width of the annual rings of the stem of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in 2004–2019 was made on the territory of the Uchalinsky mining and processing plant (South Ural, Russia) contaminated with heavy metals. Relatively high concentrations of copper and zinc were found in soils, roots, bark, young shoots, comparable to exceeding the maximum allowable concentrations. Despite the spatial uniformity of the heavy metal content in the stands, the tree samples significantly differed in terms of annual growth. Results suggest that the lack of nutrients and not stress from exposure to heavy metals is the main reason for relatively low growth rates on slopes of industrial wastes. It was confirmed by studying the annual growth in height of the undergrowth in habitats with different soil cover conservation. The data prove the relatively high potential of Scots pine for the natural recovery of industrial lands polluted with heavy metals by mining enterprises.

The efficiency of woodworking enterprises largely depends on the size and qualitative characteristics of round timber. The paper aims to assess the main inventory characteristics of round timber in economically accessible forest areas of Arkhangelsk region. The studies were carried out at a number of large enterprises in Arkhangelsk region using a modern VECTOR 3D photometric scanner. Measurements were made on the line for sorting logs by diameter at the warehouses of raw materials. There were examined 18,931 sawlogs. The length of each log was 6 m. The diameter range of round timber was from 10 to 42 cm. As a result of experiments, the average diameter of harvested logs of pine and spruce were found and the parameters of curvature, taper and bark content were determined depending on the top diameter of round timber. The region continues to trend a gradual decrease in the average diameter of round timber, the value of which in the considered period 2014–2018 varied in the range of 11–16 cm. Simultaneously with a decrease in the average diameter of round timber, the curvature, taper and bark content are reduced, which may indirectly indicate that wood under the age of ripeness is involved in industrial production. If in the 2000s small and medium-sized timber was harvested mainly from the tree top, today, it can be assumed that the source of such timber is young trees that have not reached the age of industrial ripeness but grow near the road infrastructure. Changes in the dimensional and qualitative characteristics of round timber are of a system nature and are makings for the modernization of the machinery and equipment used by logging enterprises and sawmills. In the context of reducing the average diameter of round timber, in order to maintain current performance and volume output of sawn timber, it is necessary to increase feed rates and introduce an optimization system resulting in provision of individual cutting of logs in accordance with their size and shape.For citation: Tambi A.A., Ugryumov S.A., Birman A.R., Chernogradskaya I.A. Dimensional and Qualitative Characteristics of Round Timber Harvested in Arkhangelsk Region. Lesnoy Zhurnal [Russian Forestry Journal], 2020, no. 4, pp. 147–156. DOI: 10.37482/0536-1036-2020-4-147-156

Speciesism is a bias that causes humans to accord themselves moral superiority in their dealings with non-humans. When speciesism permeates legislative thought, it leads to statutes that sacrifice the interests of non-humans to those of humans. The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 (‘PCA Act’) is no exception. Section 11 of this Act enumerates specific instances that qualify as animal cruelty and prescribes punishment for the same. However, this section is riddled with statutory flaws, some owing their origin to speciesism: inadequate and sweeping punishments, the defective incorporation of the ‘Doctrine of Necessity’, and the limited recognition of cruel acts. This article seeks to analyse each of the aforementioned faults and prescribe solutions which would strengthen the animal welfare regime as a whole. While stressing on broadening the scope of punishable acts under section 11, along with the need for statutory language to reflect ‘severity’ of punishment, the article also argues for differentiated punishment drawn from a consequence-based model which acknowledges the trauma and suffering of the animal. The intention is to prompt a discourse on the ideal drafting of animal welfare legislation.

In November 2004, the windstorm Alžbeta damaged over 12 thousand ha of forests in the High Tatra Mts. It was the largest wind disaster in the modern forestry history of Slovakia. The process of forest regeneration at the post-disturbance area has to be monitored together with the effectiveness of implemented forestry measures. Therefore, we focused on tree measurements at 90 monitoring plots (MP) in 1 × 1 km net placed in the post-disturbance area in the Tatra National Park. We recorded tree species, number of trees (density) and tree heights. Besides that, stem diameters of trees with breast height diameter over 7 cm were measured. The field work was performed in the growing season of 2019, i.e. about 15 years after the wind disturbance. In total, 20 tree species, 15 broadleaves and 5 coniferous ones, were recorded at MP. The most frequent (28.9% of all trees) species was Norway spruce followed by silver birch (18.6%), rowan (16.9%) and goat willow (15.2%). Four species, i.e. European larch, wild cherry, grey alder and common alder contributed to the total number of trees between 1.8 and 4.8% each. Share of all other species together was about 5%. Tree height frequency was left-sided for the whole sampling set (all species together), as well as for individual species. Most of young trees were less than 1m high, but some of them exceeded 10 m. Further, tree density of over 100 individuals per are (100 m2) was found at 1/3 of all MPs. As many as 25% of MPs were characterized with tree densities between 61 and 90 individuals. At 23% of MPs, the number of trees was up to 30 individuals per are, and 20% of MPs had between 31 and 60 small trees per are. The results suggested that the post-disturbance forest stands in the High Tatras would be more resistant to wind storms and very probably also to bark beetles after reaching maturity than those, which were destructed and declined at the beginning of 21st century.

Ongoing changes in fire regimes have the potential to drive widespread shifts in Earth's vegetation. Plant traits and vital rates provide insight into vulnerability to fire‐driven vegetation shifts because they can be indicators of the ability of individuals to survive fire (resistance) and populations to persist (resilience) following fire. In 15 study sites spanning climatic gradients in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA, we quantified variation in key traits and vital rates of two co‐occurring, widely distributed conifers (Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex. P. Lawson & C. Lawson and Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco). We used mixed‐effects models to explain inter‐ and intraspecific variation in tree growth, survival, bark thickness and seed cone production, as a function of species, tree life stage (i.e. diameter, height and age), average climate, local competition and site conditions. Pinus ponderosa was predicted to survive low‐severity fire at a 23% earlier age than P. menziesii. Pinus ponderosa had thicker bark and more rapid juvenile height growth, traits conferring greater fire resistance. In contrast, P. menziesii was predicted to produce seed cones at a 28% earlier age than P. ponderosa. For both species, larger individuals were more likely to survive fire and to produce cones. For P. ponderosa, cone production increased where average actual evapotranspiration (AET) was higher and local competition was lower. More frequent cone production on productive sites with higher AET is an important and underappreciated mechanism that may help to explain greater resilience to fire in these areas. Synthesis. Our analyses indicated that many plant traits and vital rates related to fire differed between Pinus ponderosa and Pseudotsuga menziesii, with trade‐offs between investment in traits that promote individual defence to fire and those that promote recolonization of disturbed sites. Future changes in fire regimes will act as a filter throughout North American forests, with our findings helping to infer which individuals and populations of two iconic species are most vulnerable to future change and offering a framework for future inquiry in other forests facing an uncertain future.

Key message Models for quantifying tree biometric properties, imperative for forest management decision-making, including height, diameter, bark thickness and volume were developed, and wood basic density was documented for dry Afromontane forests of south-central Ethiopia. Abstract Tree biometric properties such as height (ht), diameter at breast height (dbh), bark thickness (bt), volume and wood basic density (wbd) are imperative for forest management decision-making. For dry Afromontane forests in south-central Ethiopia, models for quantifying such tree properties are totally lacking. This study, therefore, aimed at developing models for ht based on dbh, for dbh based on stump height diameter (dsh), for bt based on dbh, for volume based on dbh, ht and crown width (crw), as well as documenting wbd data. Comprehensive and representative datasets were collected from Degaga–Gambo and Wondo Genet forests. The ht, dbh and bt modelling were based on 1345 sampled trees during forest inventories, while the volume modelling and wbd documentation were based on 63 destructively sampled trees from 30 species covering 87% of the total basal area in the study sites. Weighted least squares regression was applied for modelling and leave one out cross-validation was used for evaluation. The ht–dbh and dbh–dsh models performed well (pseudo-R2 = 0.72 and 0.98), while bt–dbh performed poorer (pseudo-R2 = 0.42). Models for the total tree, merchantable stem and branches volume were developed with different options for independent variables, where pseudo-R2 varied from 0.74 to 0.98, with smallest values for the branches models The models may be applied to forests outside the present study sites provided that the growing conditions are carefully evaluated. The species-wise wbd was ranging from 0.426 to 0.979 g cm−3, with the overall mean of 0.588 g cm−3. The wbd data will be useful for building up a national wbd database and may also be included in the Global Wood Density database. The study represents a significant step towards sustainable forest management including REDD + MRV practices in the dry Afromontane forests of south-central Ethiopia.

This paper examines the impacts of fiscal councils in Ireland, Portugal, and Austria. The authors focus on how key fiscal policy actors perceive the impacts of fiscal councils in their country. In ...

Planting depth management is a silvicultural regime that highly related to standing productivity. However, the influence of planting depth on stand productivity is not deeply understood by forest managers. This study examined the effect of planting depth on early growth, aboveground biomass, and carbon storage in Eucalyptus pellita which planted in Ultisols. An experiment comprising two treatments of planting depth, namely 10 cm and 20 cm, was set up using a randomized complete block design. Several parameters were selected to assess the preliminary growth of E. pellita, i.e. survival rate, height, diameter, and volume. Aboveground biomass and carbon storage were estimated in each tree component such as stem, branches, bark, and leaves. Data collection was conducted in 6, 12, and 18 months after planting. Comparison means of every indicator were analyzed using t-test with a significant level of 5%. Results demonstrated the different planting depths did not have a significant influence on survival rate as well as biomass distribution and carbon storage in leaves at the end of 18 months. Nevertheless, a substantial effect of planting depth was obviously recorded in all the rest indicators. The use of planting depth 20 cm potentially increased volume, biomass, and carbon storage ranging 21.5 – 32.1%.

The results of analyzing the influence of biotope dendroflora species composition in the town of Poltava on spreading and the degree of infesting foliage tree species with mistletoe during 2016–2019 in park zones of the town have been presented. While conducting studies, the materials of tour and experimental research-es in Kyivskyi, Podilskyi, and Shevchenkivskyi residential districts of the regional center were used. The conducted studies have shown that negative dynamics has lately been observed as to foliage tree species in-festation with mistletoe (Viscum album L.). Among the investigated districts, green plantings of Shevchen-kivskyi district are infested most of all (25.2 %) and those of Podilskyi district are the least infested (12.1 %). Considerable tree infestation process in street plantings can be explained by high anthropogenic load on them, namely a high degree of technogenic effect, soil pollution with heavy metals, dry city air, and mechan-ical injuries, which in their turn weakens immunity and decreases the resistance of street plantings to pests, diseases, and semi-parasites. One of the main reasons of infesting trees with mistletoe in park plantings is close placing of infested and healthy trees, which is strengthened by considerable anthropogenic pressure and selectivity of the parasite to tree species prevailing in park dendroflora. According to the results of the studies, tree species were determined, which due to their biological-physiological peculiarities are most of-ten infested with mistletoe (Viscum album L.) and those ones, which, on the contrary, are more resistant to the effect of this parasite. The conducted analysis enabled to develop recommendations as to rehabilitation of biotope species composition in Poltava taking into account their resistance to mistletoe infestation de-pending, in particular, on bark structure and thickness. The determining of the most resistant tree species can also be recommended for improving species composition of park zones in urban eco-system as part of measures to clean tree plantings in Poltava. Taking into account the results of the conducted research will enable to develop practical recommendations, aimed at improving the situation as to mistletoe (Viscum album L.) not only in residential districts of Poltava, but also at optimizing green plantings of any populated area.

Introduction The impact of forest fires on pine stands health and the rate of post-fire tree mortality depends on a number of factors. They are a type of fire, its intensity and duration, a predominant type of damage, and characteristics of the damaged stand. The secondary post-fire factors include trees infestation by beetles and diseases, health condition of the stand before the fire and the level of its weakening as well as impact of droughts. Materials and Methods Data from 58 sample plots (SP) were used to assess post-fire tree mortality. The stands on SP varied in age (43–95 years), their mensuration characteristics (diameter: 17–51 cm, height: 18.0–25.7 m, relative density of stocking: 0.5–1.0), fire damage intensity (average bark char height ranged from 0.4 to 4.9 m), a form of fire (running and slow surface fires), a year (2005–2018) and season of fire. SP were laid out mainly in the forests of the Forest-Steppe part of Kharkiv Region, grown in the fresh infertile and fairly infertile pine sites. A one-year post-fire period was used in the study. To assess the fire hazard level, a complex index of fire hazard by Nesterov (Nesterov 1945) was calculated. The correlation, regression and multiple regression analyses were performed according to generally accepted methods (Atramentova & Utevska 2007). Results Fires are one of the most dangerous destabilizing factors for forests. On determining specific features of the post-pyrogenic development of pine forests, it is possible to mitigate negative consequences caused by forest fires and assist in the management of forests damaged by surface fires. It was revealed that the health condition of the stands depended on the level of the fire hazard at the time of the fire, and worsened as fire hazard increased (r = 0.71; p = 0.05). With a high fire hazard (estimated by Nesterov methodology), the fire intensity (intensity of heat release during a fire) and amount of burnt forest fuel also increase. It has been established that with the fire danger score from 1,500 to 3,000, the categories of stand health varied from II,0 to III,9; the mortality rate reached 20%. With a further increase in the fire hazard up to more than 5,000, the health condition index of the damaged stands a year after the fire was III,5–V,0. It was found that the flame height and the bark char height on the trunks do not depend reliably on the fire hazard level by weather conditions. The approaches to predicting post-fire mortality at the stand level are improved taking into account fire hazard characteristics during a fire season, as well as the level of damage to trees in a pine stand and its morphometric characteristics. Conclusions A correlation between surface fire consequences (a rate of post-fire trees mortality) and the fire hazard index by weather conditions was found. It is explained by the fact that the rate of drying of surface forest fuel depends on the fire hazard index by Nesterov. With higher values of fire hazard, the intensity of heat release during a forest fire and the level of forest litter burning increase. Thus, for complex index of fire hazard from 1,500 to 3,000, a health condition index varied from II,0 to III,9. At that, the tree mortality reached 20% of total number of trees. With a further increase in the index of fire danger up to more than 5,000 points, the health condition index of pine stands a year after the fire varied from III,5 to V,0. It was found that the height of the bark char on the tree trunks does not significantly depend on the fire danger level. 2 Figs., 2 Tables, 16 Refs. Key words: postfire mortality models, fire resistance, fire hazard, consequences of forest fires.

The term »loss« should be distinguished from the term »waste« commonly used by forestry practitioners to indicate the difference between gross volume (planned production based on official tariffs) and net volume (produced timber volume) of trees. Volume loss in round wood refers to the difference between the actual volume of round wood and the volume determined based on the prescribed method of measurement and calculation. As a result of prescribed scaling methods and calculations, volume losses appear due to 1) used volume equations, 2) prescribed method of measurement (i.e. measurements of length and mid-length diameter) and 3) deduction of double bark thickness. In Croatia, round wood is cross-cut and transported with bark, while logs are measured and sold without bark. In this way, the bark is an unnecessary ballast in production, but has many possible applications such as energy source, in the production of wooden boards in construction, in nurseries and horticulture, etc. The research was conducted on 225 butt-logs of sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) ranging in diameter classes from 27.5 cm to 67.5 cm from even-aged forests in the central part of Croatia. Deduction of double bark thickness caused a higher average loss in the volume when using Huber’s equation at 14% and when using Riecke-Newton’s equation at 13.5%. In both volume estimation methods, the loss due to double bark thickness was slightly reduced exponentially as the diameter of but-logs increased. The determined dependence of the bark thickness on diameter of butt-logs over bark indicates the need for correction of the bark deduction tables that are in operational use in Croatian forestry and are provided by trading practices, and since they are not the result of scientific research, they lead to unfair payment between sellers and buyers of round wood. Comparison analysis of the simulation of butt-logs indicated that the introduction of Riecke-Newton’s equation for estimating the volume of commercially important assortments in Croatian forestry is justified. The use of Riecke-Newton’s equation in these terms leads on average to a 6.6% higher volume of butt-logs than the use of Huber’s equation for estimating the volume of assortments.

Oil Palm covers nearly 9600 hectares of Sri Lanka. The replacement process occurs once for 25-30 years creates nearly 200 tons of agricultural waste per hectare. The normal procedure of uprooting un- economical plantations is by using bachore machine. Conventional methods of clearing oil palm trunks after remaining materials in the field cause problems such as increasing breeding places for pests like rhinoceros beetles and rats increase the disease incidents in immature plants, hindering field operations and taking long time to decompose remains. Therefore, sustainable utilization of oil palm trunk bio mass is important. Oil palm trunks from Elpitiya plantation were used for the experiment. A trunk has an average biomass of 1550kg with an 8m mean length. The average number of trees per hectare is 125 per one replacement cycle. Bark is removed from trunks and cut into pieces and chopped by using an electrical chopper. The chopped pulp (initial pulp) was grinded by mortar and pestle and blender separately to produce pulp 1 and pulp 2 respectively. Molasse produced using pulp 1 and pulp 2, give final brix values of 58 and 54.4 respectively. Vinegar was produced using pulp1 and pulp 2 shows an undesirable light brown suspension with an alcohol percentage of 2%. Pots and planting containers for nurseries prepared from initial pulp can be used for nurseries and effective in direct field planting. The study revealed there is a possibility of preparing molasse and planting containers from oil palm trunks. Vinegar production process needed to be further studied.

On 14 November 2018, a symposiumManaging bark and ambrosia beetles with semiochemicalswas held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, at the Joint Meeting of the Entomological Society of America, the Entomological Society of Canada, and the Entomological Society of British Columbia. The focus was on the application of behavioural chemicals for management of bark and ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) in conifers and hardwoods in North America and Europe. Contributors included nine invited speakers from Canada, Slovakia, and the United States of America who summarised the current state of knowledge and latest technologies and shared career-long experiences and insights. This special issue features publications derived from those presentations.

Introduction Wildfires are the most dangerous destabilizing factor for forest ecosystems. Due to the increasing climate aridity, the risk remains high for the growth of forest fires frequency. Therefore, developing science-based forest practices to mitigate the ecological, economic and social losses caused by forest fires is an urgent topic. More than 90% of the total forest fires occur in pine forests. The rapid health deterioration of damaged pine trees leads to significant economic losses due to the changes in their marketability and reduction in the wood technical quality. Therefore, timely diagnosis and accurate prediction of the tree mortality probability are vital tasks to reduce negative ecological and economic effects caused by forest fires. Materials and Methods The post-pyrogenic development of the stands was analysed on 11 sample plots laid out in the middle-aged pine forests within the Left-Bank Forest-Steppe during 2013–2017. The stands in the sample plots were of different ages, mensuration rates and had different damage intensity. The study was conducted within Kharkiv Region in the forests of the State Enterprises “Zhovtneve Forest Economy” and “Zmiyivske Forest Economy”. The condition of the damaged trees was determined according to the Sanitary Forests Regulations in Ukraine. Both the correlation and regression analyses, as well as ANOVA were done using generally accepted methods. Multiple regression analysis and logistic regression analysis (binary regressions) were used to construct predictive models of the individual tree mortality probability. The quality of logistic regressions was checked by the ROC analysis. Results The indicators describing visual manifestations of tree damage after surface fires and middle-aged Pinus sylvestris L. trees fire resistance have been improved and refined. It was found that with an increase of average bark char height, the number of dead trees in the studied tree groups also increases (r = 0.87, tf = 5.80, t0.01 = 3.17). It was determined that the fire resistance of trees increases with the natural degree of tree thickness in the pine stand (statistically significant correlation was found between the natural degree of thickness and the health condition of damaged trees: r = -0.54; p = 0.05). A prognostic mortality model to determine the probability of the mortality of individual trees damaged by surface summer fires has been developed. It includes the average height of bark char and natural degree of tree thickness (the forecast model accuracy is over 78%) as predictors. Conclusions The proposed tree mortality model should be used to classify the trees damaged by surface fires, in the shortest possible time after a forest fire, as trees that will die within one year after they would have been damaged. Using this approach in forestry management will minimize the losses caused by changes in the marketability of tree stands damaged by fires. It is advisable to use the proposed critical damage values when planning forest measures (sanitation felling planning) in pine forests damaged by surface fires. 2 Figs., 2 Tables, 9 Refs.

Introduction Elm leaf beetle (Galerucella luteola Muller, 1766: Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is one of the most significant phyllobionts of the genus Ulmus. It is spread widely, particularly in the Steppe and Forest-Steppe zone. The damaged trees here have weakened, the branches have been damaged by frost, colonized by bark beetles and infected by Dutch elm disease. The aim of the research was to reveal the features of elm leaf beetle development in green stands of Kharkiv. Materials and Methods The trees of Ulmus laevis Pall., U. glabra Huds., U. minor Mill. and U. pinnato-ramosa Dieck. were inspected in 2018–2019 in parks, squares, along highways and city streets. Insect identification and rearing were carried out in the Laboratory of Forest Protection of the Ukrainian Research Institute of Forestry and Forest Melioration named after G. M. Vysotsky. Results The highest population density rates of elm leaf beetle were recorded in Molodizhny Park and in the square of the House of Culture of the Kharkiv Electromechanical Plant, as well as in the Forest Park, along Zhuravlivsky Descent and Kharkiv Regional Ring Road. Adult beetles overwinter in the litter, sometimes in soil, in the bark cracks or hollows. They began feeding at the time of elm foliage blooming, namely in early May in 2018 and in late April in 2019. The beetles damage young foliage, using it as maturation feeding. They browse the holes of different shapes and sizes, sometimes consume secondary veins, at that, they always leave the main vein. The egg masses were found in the 3rd decade of May in 2018 and in the 2nd-3rd decades of May and in the 1st decade of June in 2019. The larvae appeared at the end of the 1st decade of June in 2018 and in the 3rd decade of May in 2019. The larvae could be found up to the beginning of July. They skeletonize leaves for 18–29 days and molt twice. The larvae pupate in the litter, sometimes in the tree crown. It develops for about 10 days. The beetles of the 1st generation appeared in the trees in the first decade of July in 2018 and at the end of June in 2019 and carried on maturation feeding up to the end of August. Then they mated and laid eggs. In 2018, the beetles of the 2nd generation were found in the 2nd decade of August, and in 2019 the eggs of the 3rd generation were laid in the 1st decade of August. The larvae appeared in the middle of August and pupated on September, 2. The beetles of the 3rd generation were found on September, 8. Conclusions Depending on weather conditions, 2–3 generations of elm leaf beetle per year may develop in Kharkiv. Beetles hibernate in bark crevices, hollows, or in the litter. They leave the wintering places during elm leaves blooming (in late April – early May). The egg-laying period is extended, generations overlap. Development of eggs lasts for 6–10 days, larvae develop during 18–29 days, pupae – about 10 days. The phenological calendar for elm leaf beetle is compiled as the result of the research. 4 Figs., 1 Table, 6 Refs.

Asaviec 2 is one of the most studied settlements of the Kryvina peat bog in Northeastern Belarus. Its anaerobic environment allowed for excellent preservation of organic materials in the cultural layer dating to the end of 4th – first half of the 2nd millennium BC. Numerous artifacts connected with fishing are among the most intriguing material finds. The present publication examines materials from the 2008–2017 field seasons at Asaviec 2, the ichthyological collection of which consists of nearly 75 thousand identifiable fish bones and bone fragments. The material culture includes 68 artifacts associated with fishing, that were made of bone, teeth, bark, wood, stone, and clay. Among them are harpoon points, a barbed point, a variety of fishing hooks, barbs from composite tools, and sharpened bait-fishing tackle (zerlica/zherlitza) manufactured from bone and teeth. Large quantities of production waste, blanks, and unfinished fishing hooks were found at the settlement as well. Сlay and stone sinkers, bark floats, as well as remnants of a passive wooden fishing trap were discovered as well. Fishing equipment discovered at Asaviec 2 has multiple analogues found across culturally similar and geographically near peat bog settlements of Southeastern Latvia and Northwestern Russia. The material culture speaks to both individual and collective fishing practices, and belongs to the Northernbelarusian archaeological culture mainly, dating back to the middle of the 3rd – first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The abundance of fishing artifacts in the cultural layer, the versatility of tool types, as well as high the concentrations of fish bone and scales across the settlement highlight the crucial role of fishing in the dietary strategies of local inhabitants.

Manabí is a province rich in cultural traditions. Its cuisine makes it a province visited by national and foreign tourists. The salprieta is one of the delicacies that identify the province, however the tradition of making salprieta is being lost, that made with tagua that despite not being so widespread became a typical dish of the areas where the crop del Cade constituted the economic support of its inhabitants (Chone, Calceta, Junín, San Plácido, Paján and Jipijapa), because from this plant many by-products are obtained such as the cade used for the construction of roofs of houses and agricultural constructions; the tagua, for the elaboration of crafts, and the bark of this one is used for food of the cattle in the form of flour; and for the elaboration of salprieta in replacement of the corn. The research problem is centered on the loss of ancestral knowledge in the peasant communities to elaborate salprieta using an available resource such as the tagua bark, available raw material that is not used due to ignorance, whose nutritional properties are excellent, as we indicate the tables attached to the document.

Veteran trees are keystone structures currently in decline worldwide. In Europe, veteran oaks (Quercus spp.) are important habitat trees for wood-living beetles. Still, we have limited knowledge of the drivers determining the composition of these communities and the relevant spatial and temporal scales for these drivers. We collected beetles from 32 hollow oaks in two regions in Southern Norway along a coast-inland gradient paralleling historical onset of oak harvesting. We focused on species with different host-association to oak and identified the relative importance of processes working on different spatial scales, ranging from tree-scale to region-scale, as well as effects of the coast-inland gradient. We found all the spatial scales to influence the species composition, with a response to the coast-inland gradient and differences between the regions for all beetle groups. The tree scale was the most important scale for species mainly associated with oak, generalist species and the overall species composition—with bryophyte cover on the stem, depth of bark crevices and amount of wood mould as the most important variables. The close surroundings and forest variables on the landscape scale was most important for the beetle species restricted to broadleaf trees. Our study confirmed established knowledge, but also revealed new relationships between oak-associated beetles and relevant drivers on the tree and regional scale. As important responses of species mainly associated with oak or broadleaf trees were concealed when analyzing the total community, care should be taken not to base management recommendations on such overall, general patterns.

Naturalization of woody lianas poses a great danger to the ravine and floodplain forests of Rostov oblast. Therefore, the aim of the work was to study morphology, ecological and biological properties, and the invasive process of Partenocissus inserta. Studies were carried out in the Botanical Garden of the Southern Federal University and in the west of Rostov oblast in a floodplain oak forest at the confluence of the Mius and Krynka rivers. P. inserta penetrates into natural, seminatural, and disturbed communities and also is a part of the urban flora of Rostov-on-Don. In floodplain forests, it is a sub-edificator of the herbaceous layer, where it dominates and forms stable simple synusiae. This is the only representative of understory vegetation; it rises along the tree trunks to a height of 15–20 m, fixing itself in the unevenness of their bark by the twining tips of tendrils. It competes for the light with trees of the first story. This species changes the nature of the forest cenosis over a large area. The P. inserta naturalization strategy corresponds to the empty niche hypothesis.

Of the > 6000 species of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae), ~ 25 species cause significant amounts of tree mortality in conifer-dominated forests. Several tactics are available to manage bark beetle infestations and to reduce associated levels of tree mortality. Suppression involves short-term tactics designed to address current infestations by manipulating beetle populations and typically includes the use of sanitation harvests, insecticides, semiochemicals, or a combination of these and other treatments. Prevention is designed to reduce the probability and severity of future infestations by manipulating stand, forest, and/or landscape conditions by reducing the number of susceptible hosts through thinning, prescribed burning, and/or altering age classes and species compositions. In this chapter, we review the ecology and management of bark beetles in conifer-dominated forests in North America and Europe, where they exert their largest impacts, and provide six case studies focused on the effects of altered forest and climatic conditions on bark beetle ecology and management. We conclude that in many forests bark beetle outbreaks have and will continue to be exacerbated by climate change due to shifts in temperature and precipitation that influence bark beetles, their hosts, and community associates. Changes in forest structure and composition by natural processes and management practices have and will continue to be important factors as well. As a result, natural resource managers will be increasingly challenged to manage bark beetle populations, and to facilitate recovery of landscapes impacted by bark beetle outbreaks. In most cases, current management tactics are based on research and development executed in the 20th century and unable to meet the demands imposed by altered forest and climatic conditions without some modification and/or adaptation.

Bark beetles can cause epidemic outbreaks and kill millions of cubic meters of economical and ecologically important forests around the world. It is well known what attracts and what repels different species of bark beetle, and these chemical cues can be used to protect trees and catch the beetles without using pesticides. Applying this knowledge, we investigated the use of push–pull strategies with trap logs along susceptible edges of a Swedish boreal spruce forest. The repellents (push) used were non-host volatiles (NHV) attached to tree trunks at the forest edge, and the attractants (pull) was a commercial aggregation pheromone attached to trap logs. The aim was to test whether the Ips typographus catch could be significantly increased by combining a push–pull system with traditional trap logs, thereby providing additional protection. The experiment was performed over two years and included the main flight period of I. typographus. The study sites were clear-cuts that had been harvested the preceding winter, and sun-exposed forest edges of mature spruce were targeted for protection. A full factorial setup was used comprising two treatments (repellent and attractant) and a control. Seven replicates of the trap logs were used, three during the first year and four during the second. The number of established I. typographus maternal galleries per square meter of log surface was used as the response variable. The trap logs captured large numbers of I. typographus, at an average density of 353 and 169 maternal galleries per m2 during year 1 and year 2, respectively, over all treatments. Based on the catch data, with a sufficient number of trap logs, the risk of tree mortality at forest edges may be reduced and we recommend its general use. However, we did not see any significant effect of either the repellent or the attractant on the density of maternal galleries. Hence, we cannot recommend the addition of chemical cues to improve the efficiency of trap logs. Although trap logs are efficient in capturing bark beetles and hence may protect forest edges, it does not imply that they can provide protection on a larger scale. In line with other studies, we hence recommend that forest management to target nature-based solutions that strengthen the resilience of forest stands, by using mixed forest stands and resistant plant species, and nurture habitats for natural predators of I. typographus.

Bark and ambrosia beetles are highly successful invaders because of their life history, habits, and propensity to be easily transported by anthropogenic activities. Globalization and climate change interact to facilitate the movement of many species across and among continents, contributing to wide range expansions. Consequently, some species are transformed into notable pests in invaded areas where they can induce tree mortality. Climatic variables are strong predictors of bark and ambrosia beetle invasion potential as tolerance to extreme conditions allows them to colonize new large areas if moved by humans. We synthesized the observed and predicted impacts of climate change and human activities on worldwide invasions by bark and ambrosia beetles at each stage of the invasion process, i.e., transport, arrival, establishment and spread. Even though environmental conditions are usually strong predictors of invasion performance, the precise relationships between climate change and invasion potential are still unclear for most bark and ambrosia beetle species. Identifying the long-term drivers behind invasion success is essential to predict which species are likely to expand their ranges globally and to identify geographic areas that are most prone to these future invasions.

Himalayan yew (Taxus wallichiana) is in high demand due to the presence of taxol in its bark, needles, and seeds. This metabolite is used for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancer. In addition, Himalayan yew wood is used to prepare slabs (Tabai), coffins (Taabut), for graveyards. Due to illegal cutting of plant parts and other anthropogenic pressures, Himalayan yew is endangered, and threatened with extinction, in Himalaya. This species grows slowly and regenerates poorly, primarily due to low production and delayed germination (1.5–2 years) of its seeds. The study being reported here was conducted to assess the factors (natural and anthropogenic) threatening this species. Nine valleys (Miandam, Kalam, Shinko, Beha, Lalku, Shahgram, Bishigram, Gurnai, and Daral) in the Swat district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, have stands of Himalayan yew that were selected for the study. Before the survey was conducted, five informal discussions were carried out to identify people to be interviewed. A survey was conducted with 225 key informants in these valleys concerning the threats associated with this species. Nineteen percent of the respondents felt that the main problem was lack of awareness, while 17% indicated over-harvesting (peeling bark, lopping branches, etc.), and 13% thought it was slow growth. Other reasons for Himalayan yew decline included various anthropogenic pressures, such as: overgrazing, 15%; agriculture, 11%; roof construction, 9%; fuelwood, 7%; decoration, 5%; medicinal use, 3%; and other, 1% (e.g., utility poles, as blades in water turbine because of its hard nature). The results of this study suggest that there is an immediate need to protect T. wallichiana by increasing awareness of its importance and the threats from over-grazing; cuttings (peeling bark, lopping branches, etc.); and other damaging, anthropogenic activities. Biotechnological tools, such as vegetative propagation and in-vitro regeneration, could be practiced in nurseries and laboratories to produce large numbers of healthy, juvenile plants. In addition to in-situ and ex-situ conservation and management, there is a need for local community involvement in the large-scale reforestation efforts. Keywords: Assessment, Conservation, Extinction, Taxol, Taxus wallichiana, Threats

During decomposition of organic matter, microbial communities may follow different successional trajectories depending on the initial environment and colonizers. The timing and order of the assembly history can lead to divergent communities through priority effects. We explored how assembly history and resource quality affected fungal dead wood communities and decomposition, 1.5 and 4.5 years after tree felling. Additionally, we investigated the effect of invertebrate exclusion during the first two summers. For aspen (Populus tremula) logs, we measured initial resource quality of bark and wood, and surveyed the fungal communities by DNA metabarcoding at different time points during succession. We found that a gradient in fungal community composition was related to resource quality and discuss how this may reflect tolerance-dominance trade-offs in fungal life history strategies. As with previous studies, the initial amount of bark tannins was negatively correlated with wood decomposition rate over 4.5 years. The initial fungal community explained variation in community composition after 1.5, but not 4.5 years, of succession. Although the assembly history of initial colonizers may cause alternate trajectories in successional communities, our results indicate that the communities may easily converge with the arrival of secondary colonizers. We also identified a strong invertebrate-induced priority effect of fungal communities, even after 4.5 years of succession, thereby adding crucial knowledge to the importance of invertebrates in affecting fungal community development. By measuring and manipulating aspects of assembly history and resource quality that have rarely been studied, we expand our understanding of the complexity of fungal community dynamics.