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Here, we announce the draft genome sequence of an Oenococcus kitaharae strain isolated from homemade water kefir in Bordeaux, France. O. kitaharae CRBO2176 is deposited at the Biological Resources Center Oenology (CRBO) of the Institute of Vine and Wine Science (ISVV; Villenave d'Ornon, France).

The Oenococcus genus comprises four recognized species, and members have been found in different types of beverages, including wine, kefir, cider and kombucha. In this work, we implemented two complementary strategies to assess whether oenococcal hosts of different species and habitats were connected through their bacteriophages. First, we investigated the diversity of CRISPR-Cas systems using a genome-mining approach, and CRISPR-endowed strains were identified in three species. A census of the spacers from the four identified CRISPR-Cas loci showed that each spacer space was mostly dominated by species-specific sequences. Yet, we characterized a limited records of potentially recent and also ancient infections between O. kitaharae and O. sicerae and phages of O. oeni , suggesting that some related phages have interacted in diverse ways with their Oenococcus hosts over evolutionary time. Second, phage-host interaction analyses were performed experimentally with a diversified panel of phages and strains. None of the tested phages could infect strains across the species barrier. Yet, some infections occurred between phages and hosts from distinct beverages in the O. oeni species.

Winemaking is a complex process in which numerous microorganisms, mainly yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (LAB), play important roles. After alcoholic fermentation (AF), most wines undergo malolactic fermentation (MLF) to improve their organoleptic properties and microbiological stability. Oenococcus oeni is mainly responsible for this crucial process where L-malic acid (MA) in wine converts to softer L-lactic acid. The bacterium is better adapted to the limiting conditions imposed by the wine matrix and performs MLF under regular winemaking conditions, especially in wines with a pH below 3.5. Traditionally, this process has been conducted by the natural microbiota present within the winery. However, the start, duration and qualitative impact of spontaneous MLF are unpredictable, which prompts winemakers to use pure starter cultures of selected bacteria to promote a more reliable, simple, fast and efficient fermentation. Yet, their use does not always ensure a problem-free fermentation. Spontaneous initiation of the process may prove very difficult or does not occur at all. Such difficulties arise from a combination of factors found in some wines upon the completion of AF (high ethanol concentration, low temperature and pH, low nutrient concentrations, presence of free and bound SO 2 ). Alongside these well documented facts, research has also provided evidence that negative interactions between O. oeni and other biological entities such as yeasts may also impact MLF. Another insufficiently described, but highly significant factor inhibiting bacterial growth is connected to the presence of bacteriophages of O. oeni which are frequently associated to musts and wines. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current knowledge about the phage life cycles and possible impacts on the trajectory of the microbiota during winemaking., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Oenococcus oeni is the most exploited lactic acid bacterium in the wine industry and drives the malolactic fermentation of wines. Although prophage-like sequences have been identified in the species, many are not characterized, and a global view of their integration and distribution amongst strains is currently lacking. In this work, we analyzed the complete genomes of 231 strains for the occurrence of prophages, and analyzed their size and positions of insertion. Our data show the limited variation in the number of prophages in O. oeni genomes, and that six sites of insertion within the bacterial genome are being used for site-specific recombination. Prophage diversity patterns varied significantly for different host lineages, and environmental niches. Overall, the findings highlight the pervasive presence of prophages in the O. oeni species, their role as a major source of within-species bacterial diversity and drivers of horizontal gene transfer. Our data also have implications for enhanced understanding of the prophage recombination events which occurred during evolution of O. oeni , as well as the potential of prophages in influencing the fitness of these bacteria in their distinct niches.