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During 2005/2006 a vineyards, located in south-west of Sicily (37° 60’ N – 12° 30 E), were subjected to five different soil managements: “conventional” ( T ) soil management using up to eight soil plowing with a five furrow plow; natural cover cropping ( N ), vetch cover cropping ( V ) (Vicia sativa L.); subclover cover cropping ( S ) (trifolium subterraneum var. Clare); medic cover cropping ( M ) (medicago polymorpha var. Santiago). In the layer 0-25 cm, soil moisture, total N, NO3, NH4, and soil organic matter were determined. Fresh and dry biomass weight, and total nitrogen percentage were determined on nine one square meter subplots for each thesis. Soil erosion was measured, using a Gerlach equipment.

The study was carried out in a two year old Merlot/140 Ru and Cabernet Sauvignon/140 Ru vineyards during the 2004 growth season. Vines were spaced 2.4 m x 0.9 m in North-South orientated rows. Each vine had five to six shoots. The vineyards were drip irrigated (800 m3/Ha/season). Shoots more than 100 cm were tipped or topped at pea berry size development stage. Tipping of Merlot vines reduced shoot growth and variability of all vegetative parameters. Topping of Cabernet Sauvignon reduced variability of shoot Diameter and increased lateral shoot growth.

Using a gas chromatographic method (GC-MSanalysis), it was possible to determine the volatile constituent of an odorous flower from Vitis vinifera varieties growing in Sicily. More than 50 compounds were identified and the technique allowed us to determine that sesquiterpenes, as well as monoterpenes such as limonene and cymene, were the principal components. The odour-profiles allowed us to distinguish between variety groups or even single varieties., VITIS - Journal of Grapevine Research, Vol. 53 No. 2 (2014): Vitis

Using a gas chromatographic method (GC-MS-analysis), it was possible to determine the volatile constituent of an odorous flower from Vitis vinifera varieties growing in Sicily. More than 50 compounds were identified and the technique allowed us to determine that sesquiterpenes, as well as monoterpenes such as limonene and cymene, were the principal components. The odour-profiles allowed us to distinguish between variety groups or even single varieties.

The archaeological excavations in Piazza della Vittoria, in the Roman-Middle Age town of Palermo (Sicily) put in light a sink 3.20 m deep and 1 square m. large, partially filled by thin organic sediments. Grape seeds (grape-stones), fish scales and few vertebrate bones have been found in specific strata sealed under a stratum chronologically attributed to Islamic Middle-Age period (a post-quem limit). The finding of well preserved grape seeds is peculiar and their study opens the opportunity to improve the actual knowledge about evolution, cultivation, use and trade of Vitis L. in the Mediterranean area. This preliminary work focuses on morphologic and morphometric analysis of the ancient grape seeds with two aims: i) systematically describe the remains collection and, ii) define seeds typology and a consequent morphotaxonomic attribution. Over 200 seeds have been carefully dry cleaned (soft brush), photographed and analyzed for total breadth (B), total length (L) and length of stalk (LS) parameters, the most efficient for typological attribution (1, 2); Stummer index has been also calculated (1). Apical notch length (AN) has been for the first time evaluated. Measurements on digital images have been performed using ImageJ 1.31 platform; morphological parameters have been assembled in a dedicated database. Descriptive analysis and linear correlations have been performed using SYSTAT 10. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s HSD (5% level of significance, α = 0.05) have been applied. All the parameters approximate a normal distribution. Major variation has been observed in LS (c.v. = 35.6%) and AN (c.v. = 35.6%), while B and L showed a c.v. of 9.5% and 12.6% respectively. All the analyzed parameters behave as independent variables with the exception of a significant correlation between Stummer index and L (R2 = 0.45; y = 8.17-0.047x with y = L and x = Stummer index). This correlation reveals that Stummer index depends more from the L and not from the B parameter. On the base of LS measures three subgroups have been arbitrarily created in relationship with the LS: LS1 < 0.50 mm (45 seeds), LS2 from 0.51 to 0.89 mm (109 seeds), LS3 > 0.90 mm (35 seeds). Analyzing together the LS groups toward AN, we have found a proportional and significant correlation (p = 0.05) between the extremes LS1 and LS3. In the entire collection, Stummer index varies from 55.76 to 100.86; in the LS groups, the range is 68.38-97.87 in LS1, 61.02-100.86 in LS2 and 55.76-81.70 in LS3. A small group (17) of seeds has been excluded for the impossibility to measure the stalk. The analyzed ancient grape seeds show a wide range of variability for all the considered parameters, revealing a polymorphic collection. In general, the seeds have a rounded heart-like shape, with a noticeable pointy stalk and a very invaginated apical notch. This typical shape is more marked in LS3 group. On the base of LS measures, LS1 is ascribable to wild grapevines, while LS2 and LS3 seem to be ascribable neither to wild nor to cultivated autochthonous Vitis. Furthermore, these seeds differ from those already described in other archaeological horizons in Italy (3) and in France (2). The Stummer index varies highly, exceeding the known range of wild Vitis vinifera (4), although values close to 100 have been already found in wild grapevines in Spain (5) and values above 80 have been also described in Extra-European Vitis species (6). A deep evaluation of the sample, including isotopic analysis and aDNA studies, is in progress. 1) T. T. Korenčič, J. Jakše, Z. Korošec-Koruza (2008) Veget. Hist. Archaeobot., 17(Suppl. 1), S93-S102 2) L. Bouby, I. Figueiral, A. Bouchette, N. Rovina, S. Ivorra, T. Lacombe, T. Pastor, S. Picq, P. Marinval, J. F. Terral (2013) PLoS ONE, 8(5), e63195 3) C. Milanesi, F. Antonucci, P. Menesatti, C. Costa, C. Faleri, M. Cresti (2011) Interdisciplinaria Archaeologica – Natural Sciences in Archaeology, II(2), 95-100 4) A. Stummer (1911) Mitt. Anthropol. Gesellschaft Wien, 41, 283-296 5) F. M. De Toda, J. C. Sancha (1999) Am. J. Enol. Vitic., 50(4), 443-446 6) D. Rivera, B. Miralles, C. Obón, E. Carreño, J. A. Palazón (2007) Vitis, 46(4), 158-167

In this study, the phenolic compounds of Sicilian grape seeds were evaluated. Flavan-3-ols content was higher in white and relic than black grape seeds. The greater polyphenol quantity found in white cultivars could be also attributed to lower maturity at harvest. The flavan-3-ols content was linked with seed color. The black cultivar showed the highest degree of seed lignification

The trial was carried out over the seasons 2012-2013. A defoliation in prebloom, fruitset and veraison phenological stages was performed and several vegetative, productive and qualitative parameters were assessed. Prebloom and fruitset defoliation resulted in a strong vegetative regrowth and in a reduction of cluster compactness and berry weight. Sugar content at harvest showed significant differences depending on the meteorological condition of the season. Anthocyanins and flavonoids synthesis was favored by leaf removal practice in the coldest season; vice versa in the hottest season the highest bunch exposure in defoliated treatments determined extreme berry temperature and an intense degradation of phenolic compounds.

Background White wine quality, especially in warm climates, is affected by sunlight and heat stress. These factors increase the probability that ambering processes will occur and reduce the potential flavour compounds. This study aimed to investigate the effect of sunlight reduction on the accumulation of polyphenolic and aromatic compounds. Results This study was conducted in a commercial vineyard containing V. vinifera L. cv Grillo. Opaque polypropylene boxes (100% shading) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) net bags (50% shading) were applied at fruit set. The effect of the shaded treatments was compared to the exposed fruit treatment. The shaded treatments resulted in heavier berries and lower must sugar contents than the exposed treatments. Proanthocyanidins and total polyphenol levels were similar in the exposed and bagged grapes; however, the levels were always lower in the boxed fruit. At harvest, the highest aroma level was measured in the boxed fruits. Conclusions The boxed fruit had less sugar, fewer proanthocyanidins and more flavours than the exposed grapes. The reduction in flavanols reactive to p-dimethylamino-cinnamaldehyde as (+)-catechin equivalents and total skin proanthocyanidins is an important result for the white winemaking process. In addition, the higher level of aromatic compounds in shaded grapes at harvest is an important contribution to the development of different wine styles.

Dead vines are often a problem in many vineyards and are due to physiological or pathological causes whereby the vines need to be replaced. The replacement operation is a real cost for the direct costs of the plant material, for its planting and for their different management during the current year or in the two years after the replacement, determining also vineyard variability. When replacement is performed in the first years after vineyard establishment it is quite easy, whereas many issues occur when replacement is later, particularly issues considering roots competition. To reduce replacement problems, the use of “alternative plant material” has been evaluated. The “alternative vines” were one year old with a shoot length 80-100 cm and a shoot diameter no less than 7.50 mm. Such plant material has higher producing costs than normal vines, but it has a shorter and easier training period. The use of “alternative vines” also can be a useful tool in varietal changing (in addition to or in replacement of the graft techniques) to obtain a moderate yield since the plantation year. In this case the cost-effectiveness should be evaluated carefully. The research conducted during the 2011 and 2012 growing seasons studied the cultivation techniques adopted in the nursery to obtaining suitable “alternative plant” with different graft combinations. Vegetative and productive parameters of “alternative vines” during the first year of planting were also evaluated. Results suggest different vineyard management compare to the traditional management. Particularly, in the nursery, vines seemed to be more vigorous when there is a greater distance in the row and foliar fertilization is applied. During the first year of planting good vegetative and reproductive performances were shown. When bunches were left on high vigor vines, they ripened properly without negative effects on the vegetation development.

Mechanical and manual leaf removal of Nero d Avola vines were carried out in a commercial vineyard in Sclafani Bagni area, Sicily (South Italy), in the 2007 growing season. Rows were North East-South West oriented and vines were spur pruned and non-irrigated. The aim was to investigate the effects of two different ways of defoliation on plant physiology, vegetative parameters, yield and grape quality in a warm temperature area. Fruit zone defoliation consisted of mechanical (MLR) and hand leaf removal (HLR), applied either to both sides of the canopy (Northweast and Southeast). These treatments were applied when the berries had reached pea size and compared to a non-defoliated treatment (control). Hand and mechanical leaf removal caused different and significant reduction in leaf area per shoot modifying leaf-to-fruit ratio. Different vegetative activity was showed among the treatments during the vegetative season (from pea size to harvest). Consequently, differences in canopy architecture were measured at pea size and harvest. Photosynthetic activity of primary leaves was higher in leaf removal treatments than in non-defoliated. In HLR must sugar (°Brix) tended to increase during ripeness process, but at harvest no significant differences among treatments were found. Skin total anthocyanins was lower in HLR and the control vines showed the highest values. Leaf removal had effect on variability between the two canopy sides (Northeast/Southwest) for total anthocyanins and flavonoids. In this study leaf removal at pea size did not modify significantly grape quality of Nero d Avola .

In this study we reported the results of a second year of study conducted during 2008 season on irrigated Cabernet Sauvignon\ 1103 P vineyard. We addressed the study of whether differences in berry size (within a population of berries from different bunches) would lead to differences in qualitative parameters and whether flowering process can influence berries variability and qualitative parameters. Berries were classified at pea size into two categories according to their equatorial diameter: ≤ 7 mm as small and ≥ 9 mm as large berries. Development of the two berry categories was evaluated from “pea size” (12th June) to harvest (16th September) in terms of berry mass, equatorial berry diameter, soluble solid, pH, titratable acidity, total anthocyanin and flavonoids content (mg\kg of grapes, mg per berry). Significant differences were recorded between the two berry categories in terms of morphological and qualitative parameters. Results confirmed that berry differences exist within a cluster and that berries belonging to the same bunch show different growth patterns and ripening evolution. Definitely source-sink relationships on the same bunch are mainly influenced by the progression in flowering, which in turns modifies the berry parameters.

La prova è stata svolta, nelle stagioni vegeto-produttive 2006 e 2007. Un trattamento di defogliazione precoce (DP) è stato, eseguito nel periodo compreso tra l’allegagione e la fase acino pisello (ø = 5 mm), mentre un trattamento tardivo (DT) è stato effettuato all’invaiatura (ø = 10,5 mm). Nel 2006, gli acini provenienti dalle piante defogliate precocemente hanno raggiunto il massimo contenuto di antociani per acino con circa 15 giorni di anticipo e con un valore superiore rispetto a quelli della tesi controllo, mentre nel 2007 l’ondata di calore verificatasi in agosto ha annullato gli effetti del trattamento. Il trattamento DT, esponendo gli acini a intensi flussi radiativi, ha causato, nel 2006 un rallentamento nella sintesi ed un concomitante prolungamento del periodo d’accumulo, mentre nel 2007 ha inibito del tutto la sintesi degli antociani. La defogliazione ha determinato, inoltre, una diminuzione percentuale degli antociani acilati ed una variazione nell’incidenza percentuale della malvidina- 3-glucoside. In entrambi gli anni l’esposizione precoce ha favorito la sintesi di proantocianidine. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of partial defoliation on canopy sides of two vineyards, which had two different row orientations and were exposed to solar radiation for different num- bers of hours during the day. The experiment was carried out in Sicily in two irrigated vineyards of cv Cabernet Sauvignon (clone 377) grafted onto 1103 P rootstock, with a different row orientation: North- East/South-West (vineyard A) and North-West/South- East (vineyard B). The canopy sides that received less hours of solar radiation had higher anthocyanins contents. The defoliation treatment, instead, did not improve the grape quality, but, sometimes, it accele- rated anthocyanin synthesis.

The effect of variation in berry size on berry composition was studied in irrigated Syrah/R99 grapevines, located in a temperate area of South Africa. Berries from 45 clusters, sampled from both sides of the canopy (east and west), were weighed to create four categories: 1. less or equal to 1.5 g; 2. between 1.51 g and 2.00 g; 3. between 2.01 g and 2.50 g; 4. more than 2.50 g. Berry physical characteristics were determined and total anthocyanins and seed flavonoids were analysed by spectrophotometry and anthocyanin profiles by HPLC. The ratio of skin weight:berry weight did not change with increasing berry size, but the ratio of seed weight:berry weight increased. For total anthocyanins, varying results were obtained if values were expressed in mg/berry, mg/g skin, mg/kg grape and mg/cm2 skin. The quantity of total anthocyanins changed positively with increasing berry weight if expressed in mg/berry and remained almost similar if expressed in mg/cm2 of skin. In contrast, total polyphenols decreased with berry weight if the values were expressed in mg/kg grape and in mg/g skin. Total anthocyanins expressed in mg/kg grape and in mg/g skin were correlated positively to the number of berries as well as to the total skin surface in one kilogram of grape. In this study, the largest berries seemed to have lower quality characteristics. In order to obtain better wine quality, it seems important to reduce berry weight and, in general, berry size variability of Syrah. The obtainment and continuity of a particular wine style may be affected by berry variability.

Sono stati studiati nell’ambito della variabilità naturale riscontrata in un vigneto della cv Syrah, gli effetti della dimensione degli acini e dell’esposizione dei grappoli sui componenti dell’acino e sulla qualità dell’uva. Da entrambe le pareti della chioma (est ed ovest) sono stati pesati gli acini di 45 grappoli suddivisi in tre repliche in modo da determinare quattro classi di diverso peso (1. inferiore o uguale a 1,5 g; 2. tra 1,51 e 2,00 g; 3. tra 2,01 e 2,50 g; 4. maggiore di 2,50 g). Il rapporto peso buccia/peso acino non è variato all’aumentare della dimensione degli acini mentre è variato il rapporto peso semi/peso acino. Gli antociani totali sono stati determinati per via spettofotometrica, il profilo antocianico (malvidina 3-glucoside, malvidina 3–glucoside acetata, malvidina 3-glucoside pcumarata) per HPLC/DAD. Per gli antociani totali sono stati ottenuti risultati diversi se espressi in mg/acino o in mg/g di buccia, o in mg/kg di uva o mg/cm2 di buccia). La quantità di antociani totali aumentava con l’incremento della classe di peso degli acini, quando espressa in mg/acino mentre rimaneva invariata, se espressa in mg/cm2 di buccia. Il contenuto, invece, diminuiva con il peso degli acini se espresso in mg/kg di uva e in mg/g di buccia. Il contenuto di antociani per kg di uva o per g di buccia era correlato positivamente al numero di acini e alla superficie della buccia presente in un kg di uva. In questa ricerca, condotta in una condizione ambientale e colturale non limitante gli acini di più elevate dimensioni hanno presentato una minore qualità e pertanto per un migliore controllo della qualità dell’uva, sembra importante limitare il peso degli acini ma ancor più la variabilità di questo parametro all’interno del vigneto.

Il livello qualitativo dell’uva è di fondamentale importanza per l’ottenimento di un prodotto enologico di qualità. La produttività della vite, sia in termini qualitativi che quantitativi, è determinata dall’interazione tra il genotipo, l’ambiente e le tecniche colturali Sin dall’impianto, il viticoltore dovrebbe essere impegnato ad effettuare scelte colturali finalizzate a ridurre la variabilità tra le piante. La gestione del sistema vigneto deve essere indirizzata alla riduzione dei costi di produzione ed al miglioramento della qualità. In tal senso, il cambiamento che sta subendo l’impostazione e la gestione della spalliera in Sicilia è un aspetto positivo. Attraverso le diverse tecniche colturali o le diverse modalità di gestione del sistema vigneto, si punta anche ad ottimizzare il rapporto quantità – qualità, cercando di raggiungere il massimo livello produttivo senza penalizzare il livello qualitativo.Tra gli obiettivi che il viticoltore deve perseguire con la gestione del vigneto, vi è quello della valorizzazione e salvaguardia dell’ambiente. Concludendo possiamo affermare che il vigneto siciliano è stato interessato da un profondo processo di ristrutturazione ma è necessario da un lato che tale rinnovamento prosegua ed anzi si sviluppi per definire diverse tipologie di gestione dei sistemi vigneto in relazione ai differenti obiettivi enologici in modo da conferire identità, tipicità ed originalità al comparto vitivinicolo siciliano. La salvaguardia del reddito dei produttori potrà essere infine attuata tramite il coinvolgimento nelle fasi del processo produttivo di tutti gli attori della filiera

Sono stati studiati gli effetti, sulla qualità dell’uva della cv Pinot nero, di defogliazione della zona dei grappoli, effettuata all’allegagione e all’invaiatura, e della copertura della zona dei grappoli con reti di diversi strati e mantenuta sulla fascia produttiva dall’allegagione all’invaiatura, dall’allegagione alla raccolta e dall’invaiatura alla raccolta. I risultati hanno mostrato che gli zuccheri sono diminuiti in relazione alla riduzione precoce di superficie fogliare. Una defogliazione effettuata ad allegagione completata ha determinato un aumento di antociani e flavonoidi. Tuttavia la ricerca ha messo in evidenza il ruolo significativo della temperatura sulla sintesi degli antociani più che di quello della luce ricevuta dai grappoli. L’abbattimento della radiazione solare con la copertura con rete dall’allegagione in poi ha determinato una riduzione della sintesi delle proantocianidine e dei polifenoli totali piuttosto che di antociani. I fenomeni di degradazione di tutti i polifenoli sono stati più intensi nelle tesi defogliate e quando la rete veniva rimossa all’invaiatura.

The key to a good estimate of fruit maturity is to collect a sample that is truly representative of the entire harvested unit (i.e., block of one variety, plot). It is important to recognize the high level of variability in fruit composition that exists within a vineyard and even within a single fruit cluster. The target of this research was to determine grape quality selecting a correct sampling strategy (part of cluster, bunch and whole vine) and minimum sample size according to vineyard variability. The results show less variability on part of bunches than whole vine and single bunch samples. Less amount of grape samples, over estimated primary and secondary metabolite levels. Finally the keys to accurate fruit assessment are to use appropriate sample collection methods, proper analytical equipment and careful sensory evaluation.

In Sicilia, caratterizzata da estati calde e poco piovose l’irrigazione e gli interventi in verde rivestono una grande importanza nella definizione del risultato produttivo e qualitativo del vigneto. È stato perciò condotto uno studio, confrontando in due differenti suoli argillosi, piante defogliate all’allegagione con piante non defogliate, in condizioni di regime asciutto e di regime irriguo, gestito, quest’ultimo, col potenziale fogliare pre-dawn. Da un’analisi dell’attività vegeto-produttiva delle piante e qualitativa delle uve sono emerse differenze significative tra i trattamenti, tra i regimi irrigui e in alcuni casi è emerso anche un effetto interazione. La defogliazione precoce ha determinato un incremento dell’attività vegetativa, ha migliorato il quadro polifenolico dell’uva e ha ritardato la degradazione dell’acidità. L’irrigazione ha influito positivamente sul peso medio dell’acino, ma ha avuto un’effetto negativo sulla gran parte dei parametri qualitativi.

Pre dawn, stem and leaf water potential evolution under different water regime were investigated in Nero d’Avola cultivar grafted onto 1103 Paulsen. The study was carried out in Rapitalà winery located in Alcamo DOC area in western Sicily. The vines were 2.4 m x 0.95 m spaced, for a density of 4385 vines/ha. Vines were trained to a vertical trellis system, spur pruned. The vineyard was drip irrigated (4 l/h). Three treatments were applied: 1. vines grown without irrigation water: dry condition; 2. vines irrigated until véraison with 560 m3 : late stress; 3. vines irrigated until ripeness with 1120 m3 : no stress. The aim of the study was to find the different behaviors of Ψp, Ψl e Ψs during the season. Water potential measurements (Pre dawn (Ψp), leaf water potential at midday (Ψl) and Stem water potential (Ψs) in bagged leaves at midday, both in shaded leaves) were determined using a Scholander Chamber, the day before and after each irrigation. Different water potential methods showed water content variation (in following irrigation) in different dates. In dry condition Ψp was good indicator of plant water condition whereas Ψl e Ψs during the season, had variable behaviour. Ψp evidenced better differences, between irrigated and not irrigated vines, compare to Ψs and Ψl respectively. So that Ψp is good indicator of irrigation response, in the earlier season. However Ψs and Ψl were good indicators of irrigation response during the end of the season. Higher variability was respectively found for Ψl and Ψs than Ψp This was due to the environmental condition influences. In conclusion a higher number of leaves samples is necessary for Ψs and Ψl than Ψp

The aim of the study was to calculate regression model between leaf area and shoot length to obtain leaf area evaluation by indirect method and the factors influencing this relathionship. This research was carried out for 4 years in a vineyard located in Trapani area on three red cultivars grafted onto 1103 p, trained to simple cordon system and pruned with different methods. The vines were drip irrigated. High correlation existed between leaf area and shoot length and no influence played numerousness of samples. b1 of linear regression showed an increment of values at veraison than at berry set, because of b1 increment in lateral shoots in manual pruning and in the main lateral shoots for the other two pruning system. Difficulty was found to apply a phenological linear equation to another stage. Only manual pruning linear equation showed positive result when applied in different years. Definetly, the use of a linear equation to estimate leaf area, determined an estimation error. It is still necessary to evaluate the error range determining no influence on evaluation of plant vegetative and physiological parameters.