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There is a paucity of literature on neuropsychological functions in youth with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Most studies have small sample sizes and have yielded inconsistent results. A recent meta-analysis failed to identify any significant impairments. We studied neuropsychological functions (attention, verbal fluency, working memory, set-shifting, response inhibition, planning and visuospatial abilities) in a large sample of youth with OCD (n = 97) in comparison with controls who did not have OCD (n = 50). After controlling for the confounding effects (age, sex, severity of depression and anxiety, presence of comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, any tic disorder, number of comorbidities, and non-verbal intelligence measured by the standard progressive matrices), the youth with OCD significantly underperformed with large effect sizes compared to controls, only on the test of 'behavioral reversal', measured by the Object Alternation Test (trials to reach criterion p 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.49; perseverative errors p 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.31). Patients also underperformed on a task of planning, but it was statistically insignificant. Certain comorbid disorders, antipsychotic use and age of onset did not influence neuropsychological performance significantly. Our study demonstrates that youth with OCD may have impaired 'set-shifting' in the form of 'behavioral reversal' and possibly planning, findings broadly consistent with the literature in adults and with the fronto-striatal model of OCD. It is possible that youth may accumulate more neuropsychological impairments over a period, as the illness continues into adulthood.

PurposeThis study aims to examine the effectiveness of an integrated intervention program for alcoholism (IIPA) for improving verbal encoding and memory, visuospatial construction, visual memory and quality of life (QoL) in persons with alcohol dependence.Design/methodology/approachThe sample comprised treatment-seeking alcohol-dependent persons (n = 50), allotted into two groups: (1) the treatment as usual (TAU) group (n = 25) and (2) the treatment group (n = 25)]. The groups were matched on age (±1 year) and education (±1 year). The TAU group received standard pharmacological treatment, psychotherapeutic sessions on relapse prevention and yoga for 18 days, while the treatment group received IIPA sessions in addition to the usual treatment. Auditory verbal learning test, complex figure test and QoL scale were administered at pre- and post-treatment along with screening measures.FindingsThe two groups were comparable on demographic variables, clinical characteristics and outcome measures at baseline. Pre- to post-treatment changes (gain scores) comparison between the treatment and TAU groups revealed a significant difference in verbal encoding, verbal and visual memory, verbal recognition, visuospatial construction and QoL.Research limitations/implicationsThis study suggests that IIPA is effective for improving learning and memory in both modality (verbal and visual) and QoL in persons with alcoholism. The IIPA may help in better treatment recovery.Practical implicationsThe IIPA may help in treatment for alcoholism and may enhance treatment efficacy.Originality/valueIIPA is effective for improving learning and memory in both modalities and QoL in persons with alcohol dependence. The IIPA may help in better treatment recovery.

Background: Neuroelectrophysiological measures such as electroencephalograms (EEGs) in resting state and event-related potentials (ERPs) provide valuable information about the vulnerability and treatment-related changes in persons with alcoholism. This study examined the effectiveness of an Integrated Intervention Program for Alcoholism (IIPA) using electrophysiological measures. Methods: Fifty individuals with early onset of alcohol dependence participated. They were grouped randomly into two: the treatment as usual (TAU) group and the treatment group, matched on age (±1 year) and education (±1 year). eyes closed and resting state EEGs and ERPs on cognitive tasks (flanker task, alcohol Go/No-Go task, and single outcome gambling task) were recorded before and after treatment. The TAU group received pharmacotherapy, six days/week yoga sessions, and three sessions/week group therapy on relapse prevention while the treatment group received IIPA along with usual treatment (except yoga) for 18 days. Results: There was no significant difference between the groups pre-treatment. RM-ANOVA for pre- and post-treatment stages showed a significant difference between the two groups in the absolute power of alpha, beta, theta, and delta, during eye closure, in the resting-state EEGs. The treatment group showed significantly larger N200/N2 amplitude in congruent and incongruent conditions (flanker task), N200/N2 amplitude for alcohol No-Go, P300/P3 amplitude for neutral No-Go on alcohol Go/No-Go task, and outcome-related positivity (ORP) amplitude on single outcome gambling task. Conclusion: This exploratory study suggests that IIPA is effective for enhancing relaxation state and attentiveness, decreasing hyperarousal, and ameliorating neurocognitive dysfunctions of conflict-monitoring, response inhibition, and reward processing.

Excessive use of online technology brings with it the risk of problematic digital behaviour like over-use of social media, online gambling, webinar fatigue, digital burnout, and in extreme cases doom surfing, and doom scrolling. In addition, digital failures can cause significant mental health distress to people, and unhealthy interactions on social media can also lead to deviant behaviour such as cyber bullying and cybercrime. This paper discusses the various vulnerabilities an individual is predisposed to on the internet, and highlights the importance of “Digital Resilience”. Digital resilience is a new concept which refers to the learning, recovery, and bouncing back process after having negative or adverse experiences online. A comprehensive and holistic model to introduce Digital Resilience to everyone through a multitier approach that includes Individual, Societal, and Community intervention is formulated and elaborated. The importance of addressing these concerns from both a psychological and legal perspective is also discussed.

Background Self-report measures of sensation seeking though commonly used in research have not undergone factor structure or psychometric validation in Indian adolescents. The Brief Sensation Seeking Scale - Chinese (BSSS-C; Chen et al., 2013 ) is a less culture specific tool with excellent psychometric properties and presents a suitable option for use with Indian adolescents. Aim The present study aims to validate the factor structure, evaluate the psychometric properties, and examine the gender invariance of the BSSS-C in Indian adolescents. Methods A community sample of adolescent, n = 2079, with mean age 17 years (SD = 1.71) completed the BSSS-C, the BIS/BAS, and the Adolescent Risky Behaviour scales. Results The four factor structure of the BSSS-C exhibited good to excellent model fit, acceptable internal consistency reliability (α = 0.77) and, adequate construct as well as concurrent validity in Indian adolescents. Invariance testing revealed that the factor configuration and factor loadings of the BSSS-C were equivalent across the gender. Three of the four BSSS-C latent factors were amenable for mean comparisons across the gender. Conclusion BSSS-C is a reliable measure of the four dimensional model of sensation seeking in Indian adolescents. The gender differences in the BSSS-C factors are attributable to real differences in sensation seeking construct between male and female adolescents.

Objective Alcoholism could be a core problem of self-regulatory failure. Several neurocognitive theories have hypothesized hypo-functioning or dysfunction of reflective (executive) system and heightened functioning of reactive (impulsive) system in self-regulatory failure implicated in drug addiction. Similarly, stress and affect dysregulation may breakdown self-regulation. The present study aimed to develop an Integrated Intervention Program for Alcoholism (IIPA) to enhance self-regulation and to test its effectiveness in the treatment of alcoholism. Method Individuals with early onset alcoholism (n = 50) were recruited after getting written informed consent. The study used randomized case control design. The participants were matched on age (+/−1 year) and education (+/−1 year). The TAU group received usual treatment for alcoholism which included pharmacotherapy, 6 sessions/week yoga and 3 sessions/week group therapy on relapse prevention. The intervention group received IIPA for 18 days along with usual treatment (except yoga sessions). The IIPA included several cognitive remediation tasks and mind-body exercise (Qigong and Tai Chi Chuan). Both groups were assessed on executive function tests and affect regulation scale at pre and post-intervention. The subjects were also followed up for 6 months to compare the abstinence between groups. Results Both groups were comparable at baseline. At post-intervention, the IIPA group showed a significant improvement compared to the TAU group on executive functioning and affect regulation. Follow-up results showed lower relapses in six months in the IIPA group. Conclusion Preliminary evidence showed that IIPA is effective in facilitating self-regulation. Further study may examine its utility and feasibility in other clinical conditions.

The present study aimed to develop a qualitative measure for assessment of child sexual abuse (CSA) awareness and perceived barriers to CSA disclosure based on adolescents’ perspectives and expert consensus. Focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted with the adolescents (n = 10) and the Delphi method was used to gain expert consensus (n = 5). The FGDs were audio recorded and Delphi method was conducted via email. Salient domains and themes were identified through manual thematic analysis of the qualitative data obtained from both the methods. Data validity and authentication was obtained through data and researcher triangulation. The qualitative measure for assessment of CSA awareness and perceived barriers to CSA disclosure consisting of 13 qualitative questions was developed based on these domains and expert opinion. The test-version was administered to a pilot sample of 20 adolescents meeting the inclusion criteria for this study. Based on their feedback on ease of understanding and clarity, questions were modified and rearranged. Participation rate was found to be high amongst adolescents as they readily agreed to engage in the study. Findings further indicated that the ambit of CSA awareness includes knowledge of multiple aspects like forms of sexual abuse, characteristics associated with people at risk for perpetration and at risk for victimisation, prevalent beliefs about CSA, prevention strategies and CSA legislation in India. Perceived barriers to CSA disclosure were identified in the context of self, others and the society. Implications for research, and the need for preventive frameworks for CSA in Indian context are discussed.

Background Impulsivity is widely assessed with a 30 item self-report measure known as the Barrratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS-11). Further development involved creation of an abbreviated version, called Barratt Impulsiveness Scale- short form (BIS-15; Spinella, 2007) from the original BIS-11. Unlike the original BIS-11, BIS-15 has not undergone sufficient cross cultural validation especially among the adolescent population. Aim To evaluate the factor structure and psychometric properties of BIS-15 among school and college attending Indian adolescents. Method A total of 1806 adolescents (females = 48%, mean age = 17.14 years) completed BIS-15 questionnaire, strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) and a risk taking questionnaire that assessed adolescents level of involvement in two protypical risky behaviours- substance use and unsafe sexual behaviours. Results The results of the principal component analysis of BIS-15 items revealed a three factor structure: attentional, motor and non-planning impulsivity. The internal consistency of BIS-15 was 0.79. The total score on BIS-15 was significantly associated with the externalizing, internalizing and total difficulty score on SDQ. Significant associations were observed between BIS-15 total impulsivity score and the level of risk taking among adolescents. Further, the results also revealed gender variance in impulsivity scores where male adolescents scored higher on attentional and non-planning impulsivity as compared to female adolescents. Conclusion BIS-15 is a reliable measure of impulsivity that can be used with Indian adolescent population. It would be particularly more suitable for use in settings that require comprehensive assessment of trait impulsivity in shorter time duration and without burdening the participants.

Background There is a significant gap with respect to the prevalence of depression, suicidal ideation and help seeking among youth in India. In this background, the current study attempts to examine the effect of a brief universal school based awareness program in reducing depression and suicidal behaviours among youth in schools. Method Stratified random sampling was used to select educational institutions. The intervention adopted a single group pre and post assessment design. Youth studying in 8 to 12 grades from public and private institutions were included (8–10 grades, n = 168; 11 and 12, n = 205). The tools used were: Demographic Data Sheet, Scale for Suicidal Behaviours, Beck Depression Inventory-II, and Suicide Probability Scale. Classroom based two session interventions were carried out in group format in the selected classes of 7 institutions. Descriptive statistics, RMANOVA, chi square test, ‘t’ and Mann whitney U tests were used to analyse the data. Results There was a significant reduction in depression, suicidal ideas and attempts, and suicidal probability scores. However, there was no change in the severity category for both depression and suicidal probability. Older youth showed better improvement on depression and suicidal ideation compared to their younger counterparts. Females showed better improvement on depression, suicidal ideation, hostility and suicidal probability compared to males. Significant improvement was seen for youth having higher scores on depression. Conclusion The study provides preliminary evidence for usefulness of a brief school based awareness program for depression and suicidality, a common mental health problem among adolescents in India.

Background The Behavioural Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (BERQ; Kraaij and Garnefski, 2019 ) is a recently developed tool which assesses behavioural strategies for emotion regulation. Aim The present study aimed at validating the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Hindi version of the BERQ (BERQ-H) in a sample of Indian population. Method A community sample of n = 358 individuals completed the Hindi version of the Behavioural Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7, and the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K-10). Results Exploratory factor analysis revealed that the original five factor structure of the BERQ was replicable. Confirmatory factor analysis favoured a modified five factor structure of the BERQ-H. The unidimensional and the second order factor models of the BERQ-H were not supported. The internal consistency reliability of the BERQ-H subscales was acceptable. Withdrawal, Actively approaching and Ignoring subscales showed inverse associations with depression, anxiety and psychological distress. Seeking distraction did not correlate significantly, whereas Seeking social support showed atypical associations with depression and psychological distress. Conclusion The BERQ-H is a reliable and valid measure of behavioural emotion regulation strategies. It is advisable to mainly interpret subscale scores on the BERQ-H instead of the overall score.

Background: Impulsivity and aberrant reward processing are the core features of substance use disorders, including alcoholism. The present study examined the effects of an Integrated Intervention Program for Alcoholism (IIPA) on impulsiveness and disadvantageous reward processing/risk-taking in persons with alcoholism. Materials and Methods: The study adopted age- and education-matched (±1 year) randomized control design with the pre-post comparison. The sample comprised 50 persons with alcoholism. They were allotted randomly into two groups, the intervention (IIPA) group and treatment as usual (TAU) group (n = 25 in each). Participants were assessed at pre-intervention on impulsivity (Barratt's Impulsiveness Scale) and decision-making task, which reflects reward processing deficits (modified Iowa gambling task [mIGT]). The TAU group received usual treatment for alcoholism (i.e., pharmacotherapy; three sessions in a week group therapy on relapse prevention and six sessions in week yoga) for 18 days. The intervention group received IIPA along with usual treatment (except yoga). Outcome assessment was repeated after 18 days of intervention. Results: Both groups were comparable at pre-intervention (baseline). However, the intervention (IIPA) group showed a significant reduction in impulsivity and selection from disadvantageous decks on mIGT at post-intervention, while the TAU group had no significant change. Conclusion: The findings suggest that IIPA could improve impulsivity and disadvantageous reward processing/risk-taking in persons with alcoholism. These are core features of substance use disorders and could pose a high chance for relapse after treatment. Further studies may examine improving these characteristics with IIPA and its impact on treatment outcomes such as relapse rate and maintaining sobriety.

Network connectivity can often lead to positive as well as negative mood states among regular Internet users. Recently, studies have mainly focused on the impact of Internet abuse/addiction on the various aspects of the individual, in terms of cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and interpersonal domains. However, one of the issues that is not much reported are the issues about what happens to the children who are not able to access the internet due to connectivity issues. Given this, the current article discusses two cases with negative emotional and behavioral manifestations of increased anger and frustration due to reduced Internet connectivity. This can help draw more research and attention to the need for increased cyber-literacy and incorporation of anger management programs into psychological interventions that address Internet Addiction.

Academics play a significant role in shaping one’s life. It has a direct influence on one’s future career, health, and standard of living. Recognizing this, a majority of the parents send their children to school. Considering the importance of academics, they lay enormous emphasis on marks and grades, ignoring extracurricular activities. Extracurricular activities being non-academic, the widespread tendency is to regard them as not important. Therefore, until recently, encouragement and participation in organized or structured extracurricular activity has largely been voluntary and restricted to a few schools and/or children belonging to upper social strata. Though almost all schools have at least one period in a week devoted to physical education/training, on many occasions, due to the lack of resources, children are left on their own to play or do whatever they want. Sometimes, if the syllabus is not completed, even this one period is taken up for academics. Not knowing the value of extracurricular activities, several schools use extracurricular activities period as a privilege, which is taken away every time a child shows undesirable behaviour. Though extracurricular activities have several indirect and direct benefits in academics as well as in non-academics, not many are aware of it. Research over several decades has shown that participating in one or more structured extracurricular activities has physical, emotional, psychological, academic, and social benefits. These benefits range from improvement in general health, emotional regulation, study skills, subject grade points, and aptitude test scores to increase in self-esteem. In addition, it also teaches respect for social values, customs, rules, and individual differences. On the other hand, participation in structured extracurricular activities has been shown to reduce negative and delinquent behaviours. Given the extent of benefits, it becomes imperative to advocate incorporating extracurricular activities into the regular schedule of all schools throughout the country.

There are several studies that compared neuropsychological performance of OCD patients with healthy controls. However, there are hardly any studies which have used drug-naïve as well as non-depressed OCD subjects in their studies. The present study compared eighteen drug-naïve non-depressed OCD patients with similar number of age, education and sex matched healthy controls on neuropsychological tests. The tests used are block design, object assembly, Visuospatial Working Memory Test, Verbal Working Memory Test, Complex Figure Test, Stroop Test and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. In addition to usual significance testing, Effect Sizes were calculated. In addition, correlation was done between neuropsychological test variables and clinical variables. The results did not show any significant correlation between any of the clinical variables and neuropsychological test variables. On the other hand, patients showed significant deficits mainly in executive functions and organizational strategy with respect to visuospatial functions. The observed deficits can be attributed to both dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex involvement.

Recent studies have linked alcoholism with a dysfunctional neural reward system. Although several electrophysiological studies have explored reward processing in healthy individuals, such studies in alcohol-dependent individuals are quite rare. The present study examines theta oscillations during reward processing in abstinent alcoholics. The electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded in 38 abstinent alcoholics and 38 healthy controls as they performed a single outcome gambling task, which involved outcomes of either loss or gain of an amount (10 or 50¢) that was bet. Event-related theta band (3.0-7.0 Hz) power following each outcome stimulus was computed using the S-transform method. Theta power at the time window of the outcome-related negativity (ORN) and positivity (ORP) (200-500 ms) was compared across groups and outcome conditions. Additionally, behavioral data of impulsivity and task performance were analyzed. The alcoholic group showed significantly decreased theta power during reward processing compared to controls. Current source density (CSD) maps of alcoholics revealed weaker and diffuse source activity for all conditions and weaker bilateral prefrontal sources during the Loss 50 condition when compared with controls who manifested stronger and focused midline sources. Furthermore, alcoholics exhibited increased impulsivity and risk-taking on the behavioral measures. A strong association between reduced anterior theta power and impulsive task-performance was observed. It is suggested that decreased power and weaker and diffuse CSD in alcoholics may be due to dysfunctional neural reward circuitry. The relationship among alcoholism, theta oscillations, reward processing, and impulsivity could offer clues to understand brain circuitries that mediate reward processing and inhibitory control.

Background: Event Related Potential (ERP) studies have highlighted some measures, notably P3 amplitude, that are associated with both state and trait deficits in alcoholism, while studies examining N400 amplitude in alcoholism are few. The present study aims to examine differences in the N400 component, an electrophysiological correlate of semantic priming, in event-related potentials from a lexical decision task in 87 alcohol dependent subjects and 57 community controls. Methods: Each subject was presented with 300 stimuli sequentially in a quasi-randomized design, where 150 stimuli were words and 150 were non-words. The subjects made a lexical decision indicating the word/non-word status with a button press. Among the words, 50 words (primed) were always preceded by their antonyms (prime, n = 50), whereas the remaining 50 words were unrelated. N400 amplitude and latency measures were compiled from ERPs to the primed and unprimed words. Corresponding reaction time (RT) and response characteristics were also analyzed. Results: Control subjects revealed a significant attenuation of the N400 response to the primed word when compared to the unprimed word. Significantly less attenuation was observed in alcohol dependent subjects. No significant group differences were seen for latency and behavioral measures. All subjects had slower RT for unprimed words compared to primed words; however significantly less RT savings between the unprimed and primed condition was noted for alcoholics. Conclusions: These results suggest a reduced flexibility in the cognitive networks and a lack of resource optimization in alcoholics. The reduced attenuation of N400 during the primed condition in the alcohol dependent subjects may reflect an inability to engage similar neuronal substrates associated with semantic relatedness as seen in the controls. As diminished N400 attenuation during priming is observed in both alcoholics and high risk subjects, it may be a marker of risk and a good endophenotype for alcoholism.

Background for the Study: Informed consent is a process of obtaining permission from the participant to participate in research. Involving children in a research requires them to give their “assent” for participation. Informed assent is obtained from children even after their guardians have given consent for participation. Studies have shown that children have difficulty understanding the key elements of research process such as right to withdraw from the study or the meaning of “harm” involved in the research process. Further, the studies have also propounded that using child-friendly methods such as using pictures and simple language would facilitate children's understanding. Objectives: In this study, pictorial and verbal assent formats were compared find out which format is suitable for children's understanding of informed assent with respect to research. Methods: A sample of 389 school going children and adolescents of both the gender, ranging from 7 to 16 years were considered for the study. The sample was randomly divided into two groups, where for one group (n = 197), pictorial assent format was administered and another group (n = 192), verbal assent format was administered. The pictorial assent format was developed for the study by the corresponding author. Results and Conclusions: Analysis revealed that there was a significant level of interaction between gender and the two assent formats. Males were able to understand pictorial assent format better compared to the females, whereas females were able to understand verbal assent format better than the males, when age and education were considered as covariates. Further, it was found that as age increases there is better understanding of research processes in both the formats. Hence, while the process of obtaining assent for participation in research, age of child must be considered and with respect to gender differences males tend to prefer pictorial formats whereas females tend to prefer verbal formats.

While there is extensive literature on the relationship between the P3 component of event-related potentials (ERPs) and risk for alcoholism, there are few published studies regarding other potentially important ERP components. One important candidate is the N4(00) component in the context of semantic processing, as abnormalities in this component have been reported for adult alcoholics.A semantic priming task was administered to nonalcohol dependent male offspring (18 to 25 years) of alcoholic fathers [high risk (HR) n = 23] and nonalcoholic fathers [low risk (LR) n = 28] to study whether the 2 groups differ in terms of the N4 component. Subjects were presented with 150 words and 150 nonwords. Among the words, 50 words (primed) were preceded by their antonyms (prime, n = 50), whereas the remaining 50 words were unprimed. For the analysis, N4 amplitude and latency as well as behavioral measures for the primed and unprimed words were considered.A significant interaction effect was observed between semantic condition and group, where HR subjects did not show N4 attenuation for primed stimuli.The lack of N4 attenuation to primed stimuli and/or inability to differentiate between primed and unprimed stimuli, without latency and reaction time being affected, suggest deficits in semantic priming, especially in semantic expectancy and/or postlexical semantic processing in HR male offspring. Further, it indicates that it might be an electrophysiological endophenotype that reflects genetic vulnerability to develop alcoholism.

This study evaluates the event-related potential (ERP) components in a single outcome gambling task that involved monetary losses and gains. The participants were 50 healthy young volunteers (25 males and 25 females). The gambling task involved valence (loss and gain) and amount (50 cent and 10 cent) as outcomes. The outcome-related negativity (ORN/N2) and outcome-related positivity (ORP/P3) were analyzed and compared across conditions and gender. Monetary gain (compared to loss) and higher amount (50 cent compared to 10 cent) produced higher amplitudes and shorter latencies in both ORN and ORP components. Difference wave plots showed that earlier processing (200-400 ms) is dominated by the valence (loss/gain) while later processing (after 400 ms) is marked by the amount (50 cent/10 cent). Functional mapping using Low Resolution Electromagnetic Tomography (LORETA) indicated that the ORN separated the loss against gain in both genders, while the ORP activity distinguished the 50 cent against 10 cent in males. This study further strengthens the view that separate brain processes/circuitry may mediate loss and gain. Although there were no gender differences in behavioral and impulsivity scores, ORN and ORP measures for different task conditions had significant correlations with behavioral scores. This gambling paradigm may potentially offer valuable indicators to study outcome processing and impulsivity in normals as well as in clinical populations.

Background: Patients who are diagnosed with alcohol-dependent syndrome (ADS) are shown to have neuropsychological deficits, especially executive function (EF) deficits. Among the EFs, decision-making is one such function which has consistently been shown to be impaired in people who are dependent on alcohol, compared to controls. Decision-making in this population is usually assessed with gambling-type tasks. However, some of these tasks are ambiguous, work on chance factors, rarely match with real-life gambling situations, and/or involve nonconscious mechanisms. Materials and Methods: The current study compared 26 male patients with ADS (P-ADS) with equal number of their nonalcohol-dependent male siblings on sensation seeking and explicit gambling task (EGT). EGT is similar to the Iowa gambling task in administration, but varies from it as it involves a single outcome and provides unambiguous, explicit, and continuous feedback for the participants. Results and Conclusion: The results did not show any significant relationship between decision-making variables and sensation seeking. However, despite unambiguous, explicit, and continuous feedback, patients showed significantly poor decision-making as compared to the siblings of the P-ADS group. This study throws light on why people who are addicted to alcohol have difficulties in decision-making, despite knowing the adverse effects.

In alcoholism research, studies concerning time-locked electrophysiological aspects of response inhibition have concentrated mainly on the P3 component of the event-related potential (ERP). The objective of the present study was to investigate the N2 component of the ERP to elucidate possible brain dysfunction related to the motor response and its inhibition using a Go/NoGo task in alcoholics. The sample consisted of 78 abstinent alcoholic males and 58 healthy male controls. The N2 peak was compared across group and task conditions. Alcoholics showed significantly reduced N2 peak amplitudes compared to normal controls for Go as well as NoGo task conditions. Control subjects showed significantly larger NoGo than Go N2 amplitudes at frontal regions, whereas alcoholics did not show any differences between task conditions at frontal regions. Standardized low resolution electromagnetic tomography analysis (sLORETA) indicated that alcoholics had significantly lower current density at the source than control subjects for the NoGo condition at bilateral anterior prefrontal regions, whereas the differences between groups during the Go trials were not statistically significant. Furthermore, NoGo current density across both groups revealed significantly more activation in bilateral anterior cingulate cortical (ACC) areas, with the maximum activation in the right cingulate regions. However, the magnitude of this difference was much less in alcoholics compared to control subjects. These findings suggest that alcoholics may have deficits in effortful processing during the motor response and its inhibition, suggestive of possible frontal lobe dysfunction.

Objective: A dysfunctional neural reward system has been shown to be associated with alcoholism. The current study aims to examine reward processing in male alcoholics by using event-related potentials (ERPs) as well as behavioral measures of impulsivity and risk-taking. Methods: Outcome-related negativity (ORN/N2) and positivity (ORP/P3) derived from a single outcome gambling task were analyzed using a mixed model procedure. Current density was compared across groups and outcomes using standardized low resolution electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA). Behavioral scores were also compared across groups. Correlations of ERP factors with behavioral and impulsivity factors were also analyzed. Results: Alcoholics showed significantly lower amplitude than controls during all outcome conditions for the ORP component and decreased amplitude during the loss conditions for the ORN component. Within conditions, gain produced higher amplitudes than loss conditions. Topographically, both groups had an anterior focus during loss conditions and posterior maxima during gain conditions, especially for the ORN component. Decreased ORP current density at cingulate gyrus and less negative ORN current density at sensory and motor areas characterized the alcoholics. Alcoholics had higher levels of impulsivity and risk-taking features than controls. Conclusions: Deficient outcome/reward processing and increased impulsivity and risk-taking observed in alcoholics may be at least partly due to reward deficiency and/or dysfunctional reward circuitry in the brain, suggesting that alcoholism can be considered as part of the cluster of the reward deficiency syndrome (RDS).

Event-related oscillations (EROs) have proved to be very useful in the understanding of a variety of neurocognitive processes including reward/outcome processing. In the present study, theta power (4.0–7.0 Hz) following outcome stimuli in the time window of the N2-P3 complex (200–500 ms) was analyzed in healthy normals (20 males and 20 females) while performing a gambling task that involved monetary loss and gain. The main aim was to analyze outcome processing in terms of event-related theta power in the context of valence, amount, gender, and impulsivity. The S-transform was used for the signal processing of the ERO data in terms of time-frequency-power. Results from filtered waveforms showed a partially consistent phase-alignment of the increased theta activity corresponding to N2 and P3 components following the outcome stimuli. Gain conditions produced more theta power than loss conditions. While there was anterior involvement in both gain and loss, posterior activation was stronger during gain conditions than during loss conditions. Females exhibited posterior maxima during gain conditions while males had an anterior maxima during both loss and gain conditions. The current source density of theta activity in females involved larger areas of the scalp including a bilateral frontal activity while males predominantly had a frontal midline activity. Theta power was significantly higher in females than males across all conditions. Low theta (4.0–5.5 Hz) predominantly contributed to the posterior activity during gain conditions. High theta (5.5–7.0 Hz) was more associated with impulsivity measures than low theta activity. These findings may offer valuable clues to understand outcome processing, impulsivity, and gender differences.