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Viscosity values of albumen reported in the literature are difficult to compare because different shear rates and different methods of sample preparation have been adopted. Therefore, we first investigated the effect of shear rate on the viscosity measurements of thick albumen. For intact albumen, a large intersample fluctuation in viscosity with increasing shear rate was observed. Furthermore, a large hysteresis effect was observed, indicating that the structural properties were substantially altered by the rotational behavior of the rotor. From this, we concluded that to obtain reliable measurements, the albumen needed to be mixed. After mixing, a smooth evolution in viscosity with increasing shear rate was observed. Compared with intact albumen, the hysteresis effect was smaller but still present. We next investigated the correlation between albumen viscosity and Haugh units. For this, we compared the viscosity of fresh eggs with the viscosity of eggs stored for 24 d at a temperature of 18°C. The Haugh units were first determined, and the viscosity was next determined on mixed albumen at a shear rate of 200 rad/s. Mean viscosity equaled 0.0304 and 0.0181 Pa/s for fresh eggs and eggs stored for 24 d, respectively. The decrease in viscosity during storage was significant (α = 0.05). Furthermore, we observed that the correlation between Haugh units and viscosity measured on the same egg was low. Fresh eggs having comparable Haugh units differed substantially in their measured viscosities, whereas for stored eggs, the Haugh units differed substantially but the viscosities were comparable. It is unlikely that the very large variation in rheological properties observed among fresh eggs reflects the natural variation in albumen freshness present after lay. Results suggest that these differences were partly due to the structural changes caused by albumen sampling and by the turning motion of the rotor. We conclude that determination of the rheological properties of albumen is practically infeasible and that albumen viscosity cannot be used as an index for albumen freshness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The further automation of cheese-making on an industrial level requires the development of sensor devices to monitor the gelation process and especially the firming phase. In this paper, the Foodtexture Puff Device (FPD) is tested for its ability to monitor the gelation process by comparing it with classical rheometry (G′ and G″) in a series of coagulations at different initial milk pH (6.01 to 6.61). The FPD measures the deformation of the surface of the milk during coagulation after applying an air puff directed on this surface. The maximal and minimal deformation values and the deformation range were calculated. A nonlinear model of the registered characteristics with the time point from adding rennet until the end of the gelation process was fitted on the FPD data and also on the classic theology parameters. It was concluded that the FPD monitored the coagulation process in the same way as the rheology. Moreover, the start point of the coagulation process as well as the strength of the coagulum could be estimated nondestructively. Therefore, the presented technology together with the nonlinear model may be a basis for the development of an industrial monitoring device. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using acoustic resonance analysis, it is possible to detect embryonic development. In fertile eggs, the resonant frequency suddenly decreases after about 100 h of incubation. Previous research has shown that this decrease coincides with changing mechanical properties of the albumen near the shell, caused by the formation of subembryonic fluid (SEF). In the present experiment, the adhesive forces between the shell, the membranes, and the albumen were measured before and after the decrease in the resonant frequency. The adhesive forces between shell and outer membrane and between the 2 membranes remained constant, whereas the adhesive force between the inner membrane and the albumen, indirectly measured by a Kjeldahl analysis, increased significantly. Whether the decrease in resonant frequency is caused by the increase of adhesive force between albumen and inner membrane or by the changed properties of the membranes (both of which are altered by dehydration of the albumen) is still open for discussion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, some nondestructive methods for the assessment of albumen freshness were developed. Among others, visible near-infrared transmission spectroscopy and low-resolution proton nuclear magnetic resonance (LR ¹H NMR) measurements were proposed. This study was performed to evaluate the potential of the combined measurement of visible near-infrared transmission spectroscopy and LR ¹H NMR measurements for the assessment of albumen freshness. Our results show that solely based on the transmission measurements, a good estimation of albumen freshness can be achieved. Based on LR ¹H NMR measurements, an estimation of albumen freshness can be achieved if larger egg collectives are used. However, when individual eggs are considered, only a moderate estimation is feasible. Finally, it was observed that combining both spectroscopic techniques did not improve the assessment of albumen freshness when compared solely to transmission measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the correlations between different eggshell and membrane strength parameters and their changes over time. Eggshell and membrane characteristics were measured for 2 different lines of laying hens, Hisex Brown and Bovans Brown, from wk 33 up to wk 78. Several parameters were investigated: 2 parameters concerning total eggshell strength (static and dynamic stiffness), 1 structural parameter (i.e., eggshell thickness), 2 parameters describing the material characteristics of the shell [dynamic Young's modulus (EM) and nitrogen content], and 3 parameters to measure the membrane characteristics (attachment force breaking strength and nitrogen content). This study shows that the correlations among parameters change during the laying period and among lines. The EM of the eggshell increased during the laying period for the Hisex line. No difference was observed in case of the Bovans line. In general, a negative correlation was obtained between eggshell thickness and the EM. The correlation between static and dynamic stiffness increased during lay. Finally, the attachment force and breaking strength of the membranes declined during the laying period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last 20 yr, different methods for detecting defects in eggs were developed. Until now, no satisfying technique existed to sort and quantify dirt on eggshells. The work presented here focuses on the design of an off-line computer vision system to differentiate and quantify the presence of different dirt stains on brown eggs: dark (feces), white (uric acid), blood, and yolk stains. A system that provides uniform light exposure around the egg was designed. In this uniform light, pictures of dirty and clean eggs were taken, stored, and analyzed. The classification was based on a few standard logical operators, allowing for a quick implementation in an online set-up. In an experiment, 100 clean and 100 dirty eggs were used to validate the classification algorithm. The designed vision system showed an accuracy of 99% for the detection of dirt stains. Two percent of the clean eggs had a light-colored eggshell and were subsequently mistaken for showing large white stains. The accuracy of differentiation of the different kinds of dirt stains was 91%. Of the eggs with dark stains, 10.81% were mistaken for having bloodstains, and 33.33% of eggs with bloodstains were mistaken for having dark stains. The developed system is possibly a first step toward an on line dirt evaluation technique for brown eggs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last decade, the poultry sector has sought to develop ways to monitor chicken embryonic development as to optimize the incubation conditions. One of the parameters of development which may change under different incubation conditions is the angiogenesis in the chorioallantoic membrane (CAM). To be able to quantify these changes in the angiogenesis and detect long-term effects on health, a non-destructive technique is necessary. In this article, the first steps toward such a non-destructive technique are successfully taken. A spatially resolved spectroscopy set-up is built and tested for its potential to measure changes in angiogenesis with incubation time, and differences between a normal and hypercapnic incubation. In this first study, reflectance measurements are performed directly on the CAM as the eggshell considerably complicates the analysis. This issue should be addressed in future research to come to a really non-destructive technique. An experiment was conducted in which one group was incubated under normal conditions, and another under early prenatal hypercapnic conditions (i.e., increased CO(2) concentrations). The angiogenesis in the CAM was measured at embryonic day (ED) 10, 13, and 16. The measurements showed a clear blood spectrum with an increasing amount of blood in time, and significant differences in the reflectance as function of the source-detector distances. However, no significant differences between the hypercapnia and the control group could be detected., (Copyright © 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).)

Egg weight, shell thickness, number of pores, cuticle deposition, eggshell strength (dynamic stiffness and damping ratio), and the ability of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis (SE) to penetrate the eggshell were determined. Penetration was assessed by filling the eggs with a selective medium that allowed viewing of Salmonella growth on the inside of the shell and membrane complex. After inoculation of each shell with on average 2.71 log CFU, the eggs were stored for up to 14 days at 20 degrees C and 60% relative humidity. Commercially available eggs were used. At 14 days of storage, only 6.0% of the eggs from free-range hens and 16.0% of the generic (i.e., eggs from hens in conventional battery cages that were given standard feed) white eggs were penetrated. The generic brown, organic, and omega-3-enriched eggs were penetrated at a frequency of 30 to 34%. In a second experiment it was shown that the layer strains of the hen (ISA-Brown Warren versus Bovans Goldline), which were kept in furnished cages, did not affect eggshell penetration by SE. For Bovans Goldline hens, the housing system (furnished cage versus aviary) did not affect penetration, while a trend was visible toward a higher fraction of penetrated eggshells when hens were fed corncob mix rather than standard feed. Eggshell penetration was observed more frequently in the absence of cuticle spots and for eggs having lower dynamic stiffness values. Shell contamination at the end of storage was highly correlated with SE penetration.

1. In two separate experiments, the possibility of detecting embryonic development in chicken eggs was assessed using the same spectrophotometric method used to detect blood in Table eggs, using a combination of two wavelengths (577 and 610 nm) of the transmission spectrum. 2. In the first experiment, during the first 10 d of incubation, transmission spectra of 30 Hisex White eggs and 30 Hybro eggs were measured daily. 3. In the second experiment, 292 Hisex White eggs were incubated. Seven groups were randomly assigned. Six received an injection of sodium azide (NaN3) at different times during incubation in order to stop embryonic development, and during the first 12 d of incubation the transmission spectrum was measured daily. The acoustic resonance analysis method was also used on a group of uninjected eggs. 4. In the first experiment, it was possible to detect embryonic development from 120 h of incubation onwards in fertile eggs. In the second experiment changes in light transmission due to embryonic development were detected from 108 h of incubation. Detection of embryonic development using the acoustic resonance analysis method in the second experiment was possible only from 120 h of incubation. 5. It was concluded that the detection of embryonic development using visible light transmission is not directly linked with the formation of blood, but with the formation of sub-embryonic fluid, which takes place from 72 h of incubation onwards. This fluid makes the yolk sac translucent so that absorption of light at 577 nm can be detected.