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Hydrophones are generally calibrated in acoustic fields with temporally localized (short pulse) or long duration (tone burst) signals. Free-field conditions are achieved by time gating any reflections from the hydrophone body, mounting structures and surrounding water tank boundaries arriving at the active sensing element. Consequently, the sensitivity response of the hydrophone is a result of direct waves incident on its active element, free from any contaminating effects of reflections. However, when using tone bursts below 400 kHz to calibrate hydrophones, it may not be possible to isolate the direct wave from reflection artefacts. This means the sensitivity responses derived at these frequencies using short pulse and tone burst signals might not be comparable as they can be characteristic of the acoustic field interaction with either/both the hydrophone active element alone or the hydrophone active element and body. Therefore, there is a need to consider an appropriate calibration method for a given hydrophone type, depending on whether the eventual application employs short pulse or tone burst acoustic fields. This article presents the findings from a short study comprising four needle type hydrophones of active element diameters in the range 1 mm to 4 mm. These hydrophones were calibrated from 30 kHz to 1.6 MHz using established calibration methodologies within the Underwater Acoustics (UWA) and Ultrasound (US) areas employed at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). In UWA tone burst acoustic fields are used while in US it is short pulses. The 2 mm and 4 mm diameter needle hydrophones showed the largest variation at the overlapping frequencies in which the maximum disagreement of UWA calibration was 30% relative to US calibration. For the 4 mm hydrophone, UWA calibration exhibited resonant sensitivity structure between 100 kHz to 450 kHz, but which was absent in US calibration. This observed behaviour was further investigated theoretically by using a validated acoustic wave solver to confirm the resonant sensitivity structure seen in the case of UWA calibration. The work contained within illustrates the need to ensure the method of calibration is carefully considered in the context of the duration of the acoustic signals for which the hydrophone is intended.

This article presents basic principles of hydrophone measurements, including mechanisms of action for various hydrophone designs, sensitivity and directivity calibration procedures, practical considerations for performing measurements, signal processing methods to correct for frequency-dependent sensitivity and spatial averaging across the hydrophone sensitive element, uncertainty in hydrophone measurements, special considerations for high-intensity therapeutic ultrasound, and advice for choosing an appropriate hydrophone for a particular measurement task. Recommendations are made for information to be included in hydrophone measurement reporting.

Hydrophones are pivotal measurement devices ensuring medical ultrasound acoustic exposures comply with the relevant national and international safety criteria. These devices have enabled the spatial and temporal distribution of key safety parameters to be determined in an objective and standardized way. Generally based on piezoelectric principles of operation, to convert generated voltage waveforms to acoustic pressure, they require calibration in terms of receive sensitivity, expressed in units of V∙Pa

This study describes the first in vivo acoustic attenuation measurements of breast tissue undertaken using a novel phase-insensitive detection technique employing a differential pyroelectric sensor. The operation of the sensor is thermal in nature, with its output signal being dictated by the acoustic power integrated over its surface. The particularly novel feature of the sensor lies in its differential principle of operation, which significantly enhances its immunity to background acoustic and vibration noise. A large area variant of the sensor was used to detect ultrasonic energy generated by an array of 14 discrete 3.2-MHz plane piston transducers, transmitted through pendent breasts in water. The transduction and reception capability represent key parts of a prototype Quantitative Ultrasound Computed Tomography Test Facility developed at the National Physical Laboratory to study the efficacy of phase-insensitive ultrasound computed tomography of breast phantoms containing a range of appropriate inclusions, in particular, the measurement uncertainties associated with quantitative reconstructions of the acoustic attenuation coefficient. For this study, attenuation coefficient measurements were made using 1-D projections on 12 nominally healthy study volunteers, whose age ranged from 19 to 65 years. Averaged or bulk attenuation coefficient values were generated in the range 1.7-4.6 dBcmsup-1/supat 3.2 MHz and have been compared with existing literature, derived from in vivo and ex vivo studies. Results are encouraging and indicate that the relatively simple technique could be applied as a robust method for assessing the properties of breast tissue, particularly the balance of fatty (adipose) and fibroglandular components.

Temperature estimation is a fundamental step in assessment of the efficacy of thermal therapy. A thermochromic material sensitive within the temperature range 52.5°C-75°C has been developed. The material is based on polyvinyl alcohol cryogel with the addition of a commercial thermochromic ink. It is simple to manufacture, low cost, non-toxic and versatile. The thermal response of the material was evaluated using multiple methods, including immersion in a temperature-controlled water bath, a temperature-controlled heated needle and high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) sonication. Changes in colour were evaluated using both RGB (red, green, blue) maps and pixel intensities. Acoustic and thermal properties of the material were measured. Thermo-acoustic simulations were run with an open-source software, and results were compared with the HIFU experiments, showing good agreement. The material has good potential for the development of ultrasound therapy phantoms.

Polyvinyl chloride plastisol (PVCP) has been increasingly used as a phantom material for photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging. As one of the most useful polymeric materials for industrial applications, its mechanical properties and behavior are well-known. Although the acoustic and optical properties of several formulations have previously been investigated, it is still unknown how these are affected by varying the fabrication method. Here, an improved and straightforward fabrication method is presented, and the effect of curing temperature and curing time on the PVCP acoustic and optical properties, as well as their stability over time, is investigated. The speed of sound and attenuation were determined over a frequency range from 2 to 15 MHz, while the optical attenuation spectra of samples were measured over a wavelength range from 500 to 2200 nm. The results indicate that the optimum properties are achieved at curing temperatures between 160 °C and 180 °C, while the required curing time decreases with increasing temperature. The properties of the fabricated phantoms were highly repeatable, meaning that the phantoms are not sensitive to the manufacturing conditions provided that the curing temperature and time are within the range of complete gelation-fusion (samples are optically clear) and below the limit of thermal degradation (indicated by the yellowish appearance of the sample). The samples' long-term stability was assessed over 16 weeks, and no significant change was observed in the measured acoustic and optical properties.

This paper describes the application of a pulse pileup correction algorithm based on maximum likelihood estimation to simulated and experimentally acquired signals from a pyroelectric ultrasound sensor. The sensor forms part of a prototype phase-insensitive ultrasound computed tomography (piUCT) system for breast cancer detection that generates quantitative maps of acoustic attenuation. The effectiveness of the piUCT technique has been previously demonstrated through imaging of cylindrical, polyurethane phantoms. For the technique to be applied clinically, the system must be capable of measuring high acoustic attenuations (>30 dB) and completing a scan in a clinically acceptable time frame of approximately 5 min. High attenuations present a challenge because the sensor responds directly to acoustic power and therefore, an attenuation of 30 dB causes a drop in signal level of three orders of magnitude, resulting in a large dynamic range in the received signal set. Completion of a scan in 5 min requires a period between measurements shorter than the response time of the sensor, causing pyroelectric pulse pileup. The maximum likelihood estimation method recovers the amplitudes of closely spaced superimposed pyroelectric signals while improving the coefficient of variation of the measurement by a factor of two compared to direct pulse amplitude measurement, simultaneously increasing the maximum measurable attenuation and measurement rate of the system.

Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) standardisation demands a stable, highly reproducible physical phantom to enable routine quality control and robust performance evaluation. To address this need, we have optimised a low-cost copolymer-in-oil tissue-mimickingmaterial formulation. The base material consists of mineral oil, copolymer and stabiliser with defined Chemical Abstract Service numbers. Speed of sound c(f) and acoustic attenuation coefficient α (f) were characterised over 2-10 MHz; optical absorption μa ( λ ) and reduced scattering μs '( λ ) coefficients over 450-900 nm. Acoustic properties were optimised by modifying base component ratios and optical properties were adjusted using additives. The temporal, thermomechanical and photo-stabilitywere studied, alongwith intra-laboratory fabrication and field-testing. c(f) could be tuned up to (1516±0.6) [Formula: see text] and α (f) to (17.4±0.3)dB · cm -1 at 5 MHz. The base material exhibited negligible μa ( λ ) and μs '( λ ), which could be independently tuned by addition of Nigrosin or TiO2 respectively. These properties were stable over almost a year and were minimally affected by recasting. The material showed high intra-laboratory reproducibility (coefficient of variation

Ultrasound computed tomography offers to be a transformative breast imaging technology; however, quantitative measurement and artefact-free reconstruction of the diagnostically important property of acoustic attenuation has proven to be a challenge. The UK’s National Physical Laboratory (Teddington, UK) have developed a prototype ultrasound computed tomography system which utilises a novel sensor technology specifically designed for quantitative acoustic attenuation tomography. This scanning system, with its phase-insensitive receiver, has been used to generate 2D and 3D quantitative images of the acoustic attenuation of commercially-available and bespoke breast phantoms made by CIRS (Norfolk, VA, USA). The acoustic attenuation measurements and images obtained from the system were evaluated in comparison to acoustically characterised phantom materials and Xray computed tomography imagery. The images, while generated using a relatively fast and simple reconstruction method, were found to be less susceptible to artefacts common to acoustic attenuation tomography.

Tissue mimicking materials (TMMs), typically contained within phantoms, have been used for many decades in both imaging and therapeutic applications. This review investigates the specifications that are typically being used in development of the latest TMMs. The imaging modalities that have been investigated focus around CT, mammography, SPECT, PET, MRI and ultrasound. Therapeutic applications discussed within the review include radiotherapy, thermal therapy and surgical applications. A number of modalities were not reviewed including optical spectroscopy, optical imaging and planar x-rays. The emergence of image guided interventions and multimodality imaging have placed an increasing demand on the number of specifications on the latest TMMs. Material specification standards are available in some imaging areas such as ultrasound. It is recommended that this should be replicated for other imaging and therapeutic modalities. Materials used within phantoms have been reviewed for a series of imaging and therapeutic applications with the potential to become a testbed for cross-fertilization of materials across modalities. Deformation, texture, multimodality imaging and perfusion are common themes that are currently under development.

High intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) is a non-invasive thermal therapy during which a focused ultrasound beam is used to destroy cells within a confined volume of tissue. Due to its increased use and advancements in treatment delivery, various numerical models are being developed for use in treatment planning software. In order to validate these models, as well as to perform routine quality checks and transducer characterisation, a temperature monitoring technique capable of accurately mapping the temperature rise induced is necessary. Photoacoustic thermometry is a rapidly emerging technique for non-invasive temperature monitoring, where the temperature dependence of the Gruneisen parameter leads to changes in the recorded photoacoustic signal amplitude with temperature. In order to use this technique to assess heating induced by HIFU in a metrology setting, a suitable test material must first be selected that exhibits an increase in the generated photoacoustic signal with temperature. In this study, the temperature dependence of the photoacoustic conversion efficiency (μaΓ) of several tissue-mimicking materials was measured for temperatures between 22 °C and 50 °C. Materials included were agar-based phantoms, copolymer-in-oil, gel wax, PVA cryogels, PVCP and silicone. This information provided a basis for the development of a volumetric phantom, which was sonicated in a proof-of-concept integrated photoacoustic thermometry system for monitoring of HIFU-induced heating. The results show the suitability of agar-based phantoms and photoacoustic thermometry to image the 3D heat distribution generated by a HIFU transducer.

The effect of temperature and electrical drive conditions on the output of lead zirconate titanate (PZT) transducers is of particular interest in ultrasound metrology and medical ultrasound applications. In this work, the temperature-dependent output of two single-element PZT transducers was measured between 22 °C and 46 °C. Two independent measurement methods were used, namely radiation force balance measurements and laser vibrometry. When driven at constant voltage using a 50 Ω matched signal generator and amplifier using continuous wave (CW) or quasi-CW excitation, the output of the two transducers increased on average by 0.6 % per degree, largely due to an increase in transducer efficiency with temperature. The two measurement methods showed close agreement. Similar trends were observed when using single cycle excitation with the same signal chain. However, when driven using a pulser (which is not electrically matched), the two transducers exhibited different behaviour depending on their electrical impedance. Accounting for the temperature-dependent output of PZT transducers could have implications for many areas of ultrasound metrology, for example, in therapeutic ultrasound where a coupling fluid at an increased or decreased temperature is often used.

With a number of cavitation meters on the market which claim to characterise fields in ultrasonic cleaning baths, this paper provides an objective comparison of a selection of these devices and establishes the extent to which their claims are met. The National Physical Laboratory’s multi-frequency ultrasonic reference vessel provided the stable 21.06 kHz field, above and below the inertial cavitation threshold, as a test bed for the sensor comparison. Measurements from these devices were evaluated in relation to the known acoustic pressure distribution in the cavitating vessel as a means of identifying the mode of operation of the sensors and to examine the particular indicator of cavitation activity which they deliver. Through the comparison with megahertz filtered acoustic signals generated by inertial cavitation, it was determined that the majority of the cavitation meters used in this study responded to acoustic pressure generated by the direct applied acoustic field and therefore tended to overestimate the occurrence of cavitation within the vessel, giving non-zero responses under conditions when there was known to be no inertial cavitation occurring with the reference vessel. This has implications for interpreting the data they provide in user applications.

Acoustic output power is an important safety-related parameter whose standardised measurement method involves use of a radiation force balance in conjunction with a special target that is typically designed to be totally absorbing to ultrasound. International Standard International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 61161 specifies important performance criteria for such an absorber, such as transmission loss and reflection loss. Currently, there is a lack of acoustic absorbers meeting these requirements at low frequencies (

An algorithm was developed for the correction of ring artifacts in phase-insensitive ultrasound computed tomography attenuation images. Differences in the measurement sensitivity between the ultrasound transducer array elements cause discontinuities in the sinogram which manifest as rings and arcs in the reconstructed image. The magnitudes of the discontinuities are potentially time-varying and dependent on the attenuation being measured. The algorithm dynamically determines the measurement sensitivity of each transducer in the array during the scan by comparison with both the elements to its left and the elements to its right. Elements at either end of the array are corrected, assuming a zero-attenuation path. The two estimates of sensitivity are combined using a weighted mean similar to a Kalman filter. The algorithm was tested on simulated and experimentally acquired data. It was demonstrated to reduce the root-mean-square error (RMSE) of simulated images against ground-truth images by up to a factor of 50 compared with uncorrected images and to visibly reduce artifacts on images reconstructed from the experimentally acquired data.

Phantom test devices are used in the development of medical imaging modalities to gain a more complete understanding of the underlying physical processes and to optimize techniques. There are currently no standard photoacoustic imaging (PAI) phantoms, although there is a move towards standardization, notably in a new international consortium (IPASC) focusing on the standardization of PAI techniques and phantoms. The use of gel wax/copolymer in oil materials in PAI is relatively recent with only limited studies carried out, however such materials hold promise for wide-spread adoption as a phantom material due to ease of preparation and extensive component availability. A standardized preparation method for the material has yet to be published. This work describes an investigation of the acoustic properties of various preparations of the bulk material. The final material consisted of 84.49 % mineral oil (light), 12 % Polystyrene-block-poly(ethylene-ran-butylene)-block-polystyrene 3 % low density polyethylene, 0.05 % TiO2 and 0.46 % Benzalkonium chloride and had stable acoustic properties mimicking fatty soft tissue over 6 months, with a phase velocity of 1464.2 ± 0.4 m s‒1 and mean attenuation of 4.04 ± 0.2 dB cm‒1 at 5 MHz.

Photoacoustic (PA) point spread function (PSF) of an acoustic-resolution PA microscope (AR-PAM) (easyPAM-400™, Kibero). In the absence of a point absorber, the conventional lateral and axial PSF characterisation approaches of a PAM involve the line spread function (LSF) measurement of an edge and shift-and-sum method, respectively. A comparison is made between these approaches that derive the PSF to that obtained by imaging quasi point targets. The PA lateral and axial resolutions of the PAM derived using the approaches mentioned above were estimated to be 6.59 ± 1.23 μm and 7.6 ± 0.2 μm, respectively. The lateral and axial PSF obtained from the point target were 7.75 ± 0.25 μm and 8.3 ± 0.67 μm, respectively. Comparison indicated that there is good agreement between the approaches that derive the PSF and that obtained by imaging point targets.

Knowledge of the temperature dependence of the material properties of tissue-mimicking materials is useful or essential for many applications. This includes photoacoustic thermometry where the temperature dependence of the Gruneisen parameter of tissues leads to changes in the recorded photoacoustic signal amplitude with temperature. Here, a setup is described that can measure the temperature dependence of the speed of sound and photoacoustic conversion efficiency (µ a Γ) of tissue-mimicking materials. Agar-based phantoms, copolymer-in-oil, gel wax, PVCP, silicone and water were characterised in the newly developed setup for temperatures between 22°C and 50°C. This information provides a valuable resource for material characterisation and future development of tissue-mimicking materials.

Optical approaches for hydrophone calibrations offer significant advantages over existing methods based on reciprocity. In particular, heterodyne and homodyne interferometry can accurately measure particle velocity and displacements at a specific point in space thus enabling the acoustical pressure to be measured in an absolute, direct, assumption-free manner, with traceability through the SI definition of the metre. The calibration of a hydrophone can then be performed by placing the active element of the sensor at the point where the acoustic pressure field was measured and monitoring its electrical output. However, it is crucial to validate the performance and accuracy of such optical methods by direct comparison rather than through device calibration. Here we report on the direct comparison of two such optical interferometers used in underwater acoustics and ultrasonics in terms of acoustic pressure estimation and their associated uncertainties in the frequency range 200 kHz–3.5 MHz, with results showing agreement better than 1% in terms of pressure and typical expanded uncertainties better than 3% for both reported methods.

Ultrasound is typically measured using phase-sensitive piezoelectric sensors. Interest in phase-insensitive sensors has grown recently, with proposed applications including ultrasound attenuation tomography of the breast and acoustic power measurement. One advantage of phase-insensitive detectors, in contrast to conventional phase-sensitive detectors, is that they do not suffer from a narrow directional response at high frequencies due to phase cancellation. A numerical model of a phase-insensitive pyroelectric ultrasound sensor is presented. The model consists of three coupled components run in sequence: acoustic, thermal, and electrical. The acoustic simulation models the propagation and absorption of the incident ultrasound wave. The absorbed acoustic power density is used as a heat source in the thermal simulation of the time-evolution of the temperature in the sensor. Both the acoustic and thermal simulations are performed using the k-Wave MATLAB toolbox with an assumption that shear waves are not supported in the medium. The final component of the model is a pyroelectric circuit model which outputs the sensor response based on the temperature change in the sensor. The modelled pyroelectric sensor response and directional dependence are compared to empirical data.

The acoustically-driven dynamics of isolated particle-like objects in microfluidic environments is a well-characterised phenomenon, which has been the subject of many studies. Conversely, very few acoustofluidic researchers looked at coated microbubbles, despite their widespread use in diagnostic imaging and the need for a precise characterisation of their acoustically-driven behaviour, underpinning therapeutic applications. The main reason is that microbubbles behave differently, due to their larger compressibility, exhibiting much stronger interactions with the unperturbed acoustic field (primary Bjerknes forces) or with other bubbles (secondary Bjerknes forces). In this paper, we study the translational dynamics of commercially-available polymer-coated microbubbles in a standing-wave acoustofluidic device. At increasing acoustic driving pressures, we measure acoustic forces on isolated bubbles, quantify bubble-bubble interaction forces during doublet formation and study the occurrence of sub-wavelength structures during aggregation. We present a dynamic characterisation of microbubble compressibility with acoustic pressure, highlighting a threshold pressure below which bubbles can be treated as uncoated. Thanks to benchmarking measurements under a scanning electron microscope, we interpret this threshold as the onset of buckling, providing a quantitative measurement of this parameter at the single-bubble level. For acoustofluidic applications, our results highlight the limitations of treating microbubbles as a special case of solid particles. Our findings will impact applications where knowing the buckling pressure of coated microbubbles has a key role, like diagnostics and drug delivery.

A multi-frequency cavitation vessel (RV-multi) has been commissioned at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL, UK), with the aim of establishing a standard source of acoustic cavitation in water, with reference to which details of the cavitation process can be studied and cavitation measurement techniques evaluated. The vessel is a cylindrical cavity with a maximum capacity up to 17 L, and is designed to work at six frequency ranges, from 21 kHz to 136 kHz, under controlled temperature conditions. This paper discusses the design of RV-multi and reports experiments carried out to establish the reproducibility of the acoustic pressure field established within the vessel and its operating envelope, including sensitivity to aspects such as water depth and temperature. The acoustic field distribution was determined along the radial and depth directions within the vessel using a miniature hydrophone, for two input voltage levels under low power transducer excitation conditions (e.g. below the cavitation threshold). Particular care was taken in determining peak acoustic pressure locations, as these are critical for accompanying cavitation studies. Perturbations of the vessel by the measuring hydrophone were also monitored with a bottom-mounted pressure sensor.

The acoustic nonlinearity parameter, B/A, is an important parameter which defines the way a propagating finite amplitude acoustic wave progressively distorts when travelling through any medium. One measurement technique used to determine its value is the finite amplitude insertion substitution (FAIS) method which has been applied to a range of liquid, tissue and tissue-like media. Importantly, in terms of the achievable measurement uncertainties, it is a relative technique. This paper presents a detailed study of the method, employing a number of novel features. The first of these is the use of a large area membrane hydrophone (30 mm aperture) which is used to record the plane-wave component of the acoustic field. This reduces the influence of diffraction on measurements, enabling studies to be carried out within the transducer near-field, with the interrogating transducer, test cell and detector positioned close to one another, an attribute which assists in controlling errors arising from nonlinear distortion in any intervening water path. The second feature is the development of a model which estimates the influence of finite-amplitude distortion as the acoustic wave travels from the rear surface of the test cell to the detector. It is demonstrated that this can lead to a significant systematic error in B/A measurement whose magnitude and direction depends on the acoustic property contrast between the test material and the water-filled equivalent cell. Good qualitative agreement between the model and experiment is reported. B/A measurements are reported undertaken at (20 ± 0.5) °C for two fluids commonly employed as reference materials within the technical literature: Corn Oil and Ethylene Glycol. Samples of an IEC standardised agar-based tissue-mimicking material were also measured. A systematic assessment of measurement uncertainties is presented giving expanded uncertainties in the range ±7% to ±14%, expressed at a confidence level close to 95%, dependent on specimen details.

Ultrasound is typically measured using phase-sensitive piezoelectric sensors. Interest in phase-insensitive sensors has grown recently, with proposed applications in ultrasound attenuation tomography of the breast. The advantage of phase-insensitive imaging is that it does not suffer from degradation of image quality due to phase-aberration and narrow directional response. A numerical model of a phase-insensitive pyroelectric ultrasound sensor is presented. The model consists of three coupled components run in sequence: acoustic, thermal, and electrical. The acoustic simulation models the propagation and absorption of the incoming ultrasound wave. The negative divergence of the time-averaged acoustic intensity is used as a heat source in the thermal simulation for the time-evolution of temperature in the sensor. Both the acoustic and thermal simulations are performed using the k-Wave MATLAB toolbox with an assumption that shear waves are not supported in the medium. The final component of the model uses a pyroelectric circuit model which outputs the sensor response based on the temperature change in the sensor. The modelled pyroelectric sensor response and directional dependence are compared to empirical data. A physical model for the directionality of the sensor response is then proposed.

Photodiodes play an important role in many optical systems and, as such, their stability and performance are of great importance. Manufacturers of such detectors typically only provide information regarding their sensitivity as a function of the optical wavelength and this is often sufficient for applications such as telecommunications. However, in certain applications such as primary ultrasonic standards based on interferometry, the frequency response of the photodiodes is of critical importance because, for accurate calibration, a correction factor must be applied, which contributes a major source of measurement uncertainty. Most optical calibration systems reported in the literature operate either in the GHz range or a very limited MHz range. This work reports on the development of a system based on rotational optical components that produces light patterns scanned through a slit at varying speeds using different deflection mechanisms. This results in the generation of spatially dependent interference fringes in the range 1 Hz up to 115 MHz with an expanded uncertainty of less than 5% for the majority of its frequency range of operation.

The principle of using ultrasonic computed tomography (UCT) clinically for mapping tissue acoustic properties was suggested almost 40 years ago. Despite strong research activity, UCT been unable to rival its x-ray counterpart in terms of the ability to distinguish tissue pathologies. Conventional piezoelectric detectors deployed in UCT are termed phase-sensitive (PS) and it is well established that this property can lead to artefacts related to refraction and phase-cancellation that mask true tissue structure, particularly for reconstructions involving attenuation. Equally, it has long been known that phase-insensitive (PI) detectors are more immune to this effect, although sufficiently sensitive devices for clinical use have not been available. This paper explores the application of novel PI detectors to UCT. Their operating principle is based on exploiting the pyroelectric properties of the piezoelectric polymer polyvinylidene difluoride. An important detector performance characteristic which makes it particularly suited to UCT, is the lack of directionality of the PI response, relative to the PS detector mode of operation. The performance of the detectors is compared to conventional PS detection methods, for quantitatively assessing the attenuation distribution within various test objects, including a two-phase polyurethane phantom. UCT images are presented for a range of single detector apertures; tomographic reconstruction images being compared with the known structure of phantoms containing inserts as small as 3 mm, which were readily imaged. For larger diameter inserts (>10 mm), the transmitter–detector combination was able to establish the attenuation coefficient of the insert to within ±10% of values determined separately from plane-wave measurements on representative material plaques. The research has demonstrated that the new PI detectors are significantly less susceptible to refraction and phase-cancellation artefacts, generating realistic images in situations where conventionally-employed through-transmission PS detection techniques were unable to do so. The implications of the study to the potential screening of breast disease are discussed.

The ability to accurately quantify chromophore concentration from photoacoustic images would have a major impact on pre-clinical and clinical imaging. Recent years have seen significant advances in the theoretical understanding of quantitative photoacoustic imaging and in the development of model-based inversion strategies that overcome issues such as non-uniqueness and non-linearity. Nevertheless, their full in vivo implementation has not successfully been achieved, partially because experimental uncertainties complicate the transition. In this study, a sensitivity analysis is performed to assess the impact on accuracy of having uncertainty in critical experimental parameters such as scattering, beam diameter, beam position and calibration factor. This study was performed using two virtual phantoms, at one illumination and four optical wavelengths. The model-based inversion was applied in 3 variants - one just inverting for chromophores and two others further inverting for either a scaling factor or the scatterer concentration. The performance of these model-based inversions is also compared to linear unmixing strategies - with and without fluence correction. The results show that experimental uncertainties in a priori fixed parameters - especially calibration factor and scatterer concentration - significantly affect accuracy of model-based inversions and therefore measures to ameliorate this uncertainty should be considered. Including a scaling parameter in the inversion appears to improve quantification estimates. Furthermore, even with realistic levels of experimental uncertainty in model-based input parameters, they outperform linear unmixing approaches. If parameter uncertainty is large and has significant impact on accuracy, the parameter can be included as an unknown in model-based schemes.

A systematic study of the application of a novel pyroelectric technique to the measurement of diagnostic-level medical ultrasound output power is described. The method exploits the pyroelectric properties of a 0.028 mm thick membrane of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), backed by an acoustic absorber whose ultrasonic absorption coefficient approaches 1000 dB cm−1 at 3 MHz. When exposed to an ultrasonic field, absorption of ultrasound adjacent to the PVDF–absorber interface results in heating and the generation of a pyroelectric output voltage across gold electrodes deposited on the membrane. For a sensor large enough to intercept the whole of the acoustic beam, the output voltage can be calibrated for the measurement of acoustic output power. A number of key performance properties of the method have been investigated. The technique is very sensitive, with a power to voltage conversion factor of typically 0.23 V W−1. The frequency response of a particular embodiment of the sensor in which acoustic power reflected at the absorber–PVDF interface is subsequently returned to the pyroelectric membrane to be absorbed, has been evaluated over the frequency range 1.5 MHz to 10 MHz. This has shown the frequency response to be flat to within ±4%, above 2.5 MHz. Below this frequency, the sensitivity falls by 20% at 1.5 MHz. Linearity of the technique has been demonstrated to within ±1.6% for applied acoustic power levels from 1 mW up to 120 mW. A number of other studies targeted at assessing the achievable measurement uncertainties are presented. These involve: the effects of soaking, the influence of the angle of incidence of the acoustic beam, measurement repeatability and sensitivity to transducer positioning. Additionally, over the range 20 °C to 30 °C, the rate of change in sensitivity with ambient temperature has been shown to be +0.5% °C−1. Implications of the work for the development of a sensitive, traceable, portable, secondary method of ultrasound output power measurement, appropriate for clinical diagnostic ultrasound systems, are discussed.

Progress in developing a new measurement method for ultrasound output power is described. It is a thermal-based technique with the acoustic power generated by a transducer being absorbed within a specially developed polyurethane rubber material, whose high absorption coefficient ensures energy deposition within a few mm of the ultrasonic wave entering the material. The rate of change of temperature at the absorber surface is monitored using the pyroelectric voltage generated from electrodes disposed either side of a 60 mm diameter, 0.061 mm thick membrane of the piezoelectric polymer polyvinylidene fluoride (pvdf) bonded to the absorber. The change in the pyroelectric output voltage generated by the sensor when the transducer is switched ON and OFF is proportional to the delivered ultrasound power. The sensitivity of the device is defined as the magnitude of these switch voltages to a unit input stimulus of power (watt). Three important aspects of the performance of the pyroelectric sensor have been studied. Firstly, measurements have revealed that the temperature dependent sensitivity increases over the range from approximately 20°C to 30°C at a rate of +1.6% °C(-1). Studies point to the key role that the properties of both the absorbing backing layer and pvdf membrane play in controlling the sensor response. Secondly, the high sensitivity of the technique has been demonstrated using an NPL Pulsed Checksource, a 3.5 MHz focused transducer delivering a nominal acoustic power level of 4 mW. Finally, proof-of-concept of a new type of acoustic sensor responding to time-averaged intensity has been demonstrated, through fabrication of an absorber-backed hydrophone of nominal active element diameter 0.4 mm. A preliminary study using such a device to resolve the spatial distribution of acoustic intensity within plane-piston and focused 3.5 MHz acoustic fields has been completed. Derived beam profiles are compared to conventional techniques that depend on deriving intensity from acoustic pressure measurements made using the sensor as a calibrated hydrophone.

A review is presented of methods of measurement for a range of key acoustic properties of materials, spanning three application areas: airborne sound, underwater acoustics and ultrasound. The acoustic properties considered, primarily transmission loss (damping) and echo-reduction, are specifically important to the end application of any material. The state-of-the-art in measurement and likely future challenges are described in detail.

The last 25 years has seen a number of significant developments in the establishment of a measurement infrastructure supporting medical applications of ultrasound. This has allowed manufacturers and users of medical ultrasonic equipment to undertake and compare measurements of key parameters describing the magnitude or strength of the applied ultrasonic field in a meaningful and traceable way: for equipment development, standards compliance, and quality assurance purposes. This paper describes the current state of the art for measurement techniques used to determine the key properties of an ultrasonic field, principally acoustic pressure and acoustic power. Measurement tools and methodologies are described in detail, alongside considerations of how these are likely to develop, shaped by user need. The way that these measurement methods underpin a range of international and national specification standards enabling equipment manufacturers to demonstrate that their equipment is safe and fit for purpose is covered.

As part of an ongoing project to establish a reference facility for acoustic cavitation at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), carefully controlled studies on a 25 kHz, 1.8 kW cylindrical vessel are described. Using a patented high-frequency acoustic emission detection method and a sonar hydrophone, results are presented of the spatial variation of inertial acoustic cavitation with increasing peak-negative pressure. Results show that at low operating levels, inertial acoustic cavitation is restricted to, and is strongly localized on, the vessel axis. At intermediate power settings, inertial acoustic cavitation also occurs close to the vessel walls, and at higher settings, a complex spatial variation is seen that is not apparent in measurements of the 25 kHz driving field alone. At selected vessel locations, a systematic investigation of the inertial cavitation threshold is described. This was carried out by making simultaneous measurements of the peak-negative pressures leading to inertial cavitation and the resultant MHz-frequency emissions, and indicates an inertial cavitation threshold of 101 kPa plusmn 14% (estimated expanded uncertainty). However, an intermediate threshold at 84 kPa plusmn 14% (estimated expanded uncertainty) is also seen. The results are discussed alongside theoretical predictions and recent experimental findings.

The effect of adding surface-active solutes to water being insonated at 515 kHz has been investigated by monitoring the acoustic emission from the solutions. At low concentrations (

This paper provides a review of current metrological capability applied to the characterisation of the acoustic output of equipment used within medical ultrasonic applications. Key measurement devices, developed to underpin metrology in this area, are the radiation force balance, used to determine total output power, and the piezo-electric hydrophone, used to resolve the spatial and temporal distribution of acoustic pressure. The measurement infrastructure in place within the United Kingdom ensuring users are able to carry out traceable measurements of these quantities in a meaningful way, is described. This includes the relevant primary standards, the way international equivalence of national standards is demonstrated and the routes by which the standards are disseminated to the user community. Emerging measurement techniques that may in future lead to improved measurement capability, are also briefly discussed.

A reference facility to control the cavitation of single bubbles and bubble clouds, using optical and acoustic fields, has been designed and developed at the National Physical Laboratory, UK. The facility consists of a cuboid acoustic chamber, with optical windows on four sides and four transducers mounted on a truncated tetrahedron cap, a Q-switched laser, and an optical beam splitting system able to form either single or multiple beams. This work presents a characterization of this facility: the acoustic pressure field inside the acoustic chamber was measured with a combination of laser refractometry and hydrophone scans, to determine the locations where cavitation can be studied, while the optical threshold was quantified by observing nucleation as a function of the beam parameters. This work also presents some preliminary acoustic emission data and high-speed observations of bubble dynamics.

Photoacoustic imaging can provide high resolution images of tissue structure, pathology and function. As these images can be obtained at multiple wavelengths, quantitatively accurate, spatially resolved, estimates for chromophore concentration, for example, may be obtainable. Such a capability would find a wide range of clinical and pre-clinical applications. However, despite a growing body of theoretical papers on how this might be achieved, there is a noticeable lack of studies providing validated evidence that it can be achieved experimentally, either in vitro or in vivo. Well-defined, versatile and stable phantom materials are essential to assess the accuracy, robustness and applicability of multispectral Quantitative Photoacoustic Imaging (qPAI) algorithms in experimental scenarios. This study assesses the potential of polyvinyl chloride plastisol (PVCP) as a phantom material for qPAI, building on previous work that focussed on using PVCP for quality control. Parameters that might be controlled or tuned to assess the performance of qPAI algorithms were studied: broadband acoustic properties, multiwavelength optical properties with added absorbers and scatterers, and photoacoustic effciency. The optical and acoustic properties of PVCP can be tuned to be broadly representative of soft tissue. The Gruneisen parameter is larger than expected in tissue, which is an advantage as it increases the signal-to-noise ratio of the photoacoustic measurements. Interestingly, when the absorption was altered by adding absorbers, the absorption spectra measured using high peak power nanosecond-pulsed sources (typical in photoacoustics) were repeatably different from the ones measured using the low power source in the spectrophotometer, indicative of photochemical reactions taking place.

Ultrasound is used in many areas of medicine, including diagnostic imaging, therapy, lithotripsy, and surgery. The chapter gives a general description of ultrasound, its propagation, bioeffects, and measurement techniques. Potential biohazards of ultrasound are tissue heating, cavitation, acoustic radiation forces, and mechanical strain due to particle displacement. Any bioeffects produced by ultrasound in diagnostic applications have little consequence for the individual, as illustrated by its routine use in diagnostic foetal scanning, but surgical techniques destroy tissue on a macroscopic scale. There are separate sections which consider exposure, standards and give practical guidance measures for each of the four main areas of medical application. All applications of ultrasound in medicine have an impressive safety record, and the 3 W cm-2 limit for therapeutic ultrasound is the only safety criterion that has been formally adopted into current international standards.

Ultrasound (US) physiotherapy as a clinical treatment is extremely common in the Western world. Internationally, regulation to ensure safe application of US physiotherapy by regular calibration ranges from nil to mandatory. The need for a portable power standard (PPS) has been addressed within a European Community (EC)-funded project. This PPS consists of an electrical driver, a set of US transducers and a cavitation detector (CD). Each component has been extensively tested for stability and travel robustness. Transducer output power has been determined with an uncertainty of 100%). The PPS is now ready to be used to underpin traceable calibration of physiotherapy devices. (E-mail: rt.hekkenberg@pg.tno.nl). © 2006 World Federation for Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology.

The number of applications of medical ultrasound utilising frequencies in excess of 20 MHz has shown a consistent increase over recent years. Coupled with the commercial availability of wide-bandwidth hydrophones whose response extends beyond 40 MHz, this has driven a growing need to develop hydrophone calibration techniques at elevated frequencies. The current National Physical Laboratory primary standard method of calibrating hydrophones is based on an optical interferometer. This has been in operation for around 20 years and provides traceability over the frequency range of 0.3 to 20 MHz. More recently, calibrations carried out using the interferometer have been extended to 60 MHz, although the uncertainties associated with these calibrations are poor, being in excess of ±20% at high frequencies. Major contributions to the degraded calibration uncertainties arise from poor signal-to-noise at higher frequencies, the frequency response of the photodiodes used and the noise floor of the instrument. To improve the uncertainty of hydrophone calibrations above 20 MHz, it has been necessary to build and commission a new interferometer. Important features of the new primary standard are its use of a higher power laser to improve the signal-to-noise ratio, along with photodiodes whose greater bandwidth to improve the overall frequency response. This paper describes the design of key aspects of the new interferometer. It also presents some initial results of the performance assessment, including a detailed comparison of calibrations of NPL reference membrane hydrophones, undertaken using old and new interferometers for calibration up to 40 MHz.

Physical therapy ultrasound is widely applied to patients. However, many devices do not comply with the relevant standard stating that the actual power output shall be within ±20% of the device indication. Extreme cases have been reported: from delivering effectively no ultrasound or operating at maximum power at all powers indicated. This can potentially lead to patient injury as well as mistreatment. The present European (EC) project is an ongoing attempt to improve the quality of the treatment of patients being treated with ultrasonic physical-therapy. A Portable ultrasound Power Standard (PPS) is being developed and accurately calibrated. The PPS includes: Ultrasound transducers (including one exhibiting an unusual output) and a driver for the ultrasound transducers that has calibration and proficiency test functions. Also included with the PPS is a Cavitation Detector to determine the onset of cavitation occurring within the propagation medium. The PPS will be suitable for conducting in-the-field accreditation (proficiency testing and calibration). In order to be accredited it will be important to be able to show traceability of the calibration, the calibration process and qualification of testing staff. The clinical user will benefit from traceability because treatments will be performed more reliably.

A novel concept for an ultrasonic power meter is presented which utilises the pyro-electric effect of a thin membrane of the piezo-electric polymer, pvdf. One side of the membrane is in intimate contact with a polyurethane-based acoustical absorber. The attenuation coefficient of this material is very high, ensuring that the majority of the ultrasonic energy passing through the pvdf membrane is absorbed within a thin layer of the interface, resulting in a rapid increase in temperature. Through the pyro-electric effect, this temperature increase results in a voltage across the electrodes of the membrane. Under specific conditions, the generated voltage is proportional to the rate of temperature rise and, immediately after switch on of ultrasound, the rate of temperature rise is proportional to the delivered ultrasonic power. This paper describes details of the concept, and includes theoretical calculations of the expected behaviour. Proof-of-concept is demonstrated through careful studies of several low-megahertz NPL reference therapy-level transducers, covering an applied power range of 250 mW to 8 W. Results are encouraging, suggesting that this novel solid-state power meter concept holds considerable promise for a rapid, simple, relatively low cost, power measurement method, appropriate for use at the physiotherapist level.

Cavitation monitoring is desired to optimize the sonication for diverse sonochemical processes and to detect changes or malfunctions during operation. In situ cavitation measurements can be carried out by detection of the acoustic emissions of cavitation bubbles by sensors in the liquid. However, in harsh environments sensors might not be applicable. Thus, the impact of cavitation on the electrical signals of a piezoelectric transducer has been analyzed as alternative method to measure the threshold, strength and type of cavitation. The applicability has been tested in three different setups to evaluate the generalizability of extracted indicators.

Enhancements to the existing primary standard optical interferometer and narrowband tone-burst comparison calibration methods for miniature medical ultrasonic hydrophones of the membrane type over the frequency range 100 to 500 kHz are described. Improvements were realized through application of an ultrasonically absorbing waveguide made of a low-frequency-absorbing tile used in sonar applications which narrows the spatial extent of the broad acoustic field. The waveguide was employed in conjunction with a sonar multilayered polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) hydrophone used as a transmitting transducer covering a frequency range of 100 kHz to 1 MHz. The acoustic field emanating from the ultrasonically absorbing waveguide reduced the significance of diffracted acoustic waves from the membrane hydrophone ring and the consequent interference of this wave with the direct acoustic wave received by the active element of the hydrophone during calibration. Four membrane hydrophone make/ models with ring sizes (defined as the inner diameter of the annular mounting ring of the hydrophone) in the range 50 to 100 mm were employed along with a needle hydrophone. A reference membrane hydrophone, calibrated using the NPL primary standard optical interferometer in combination with the ultrasonically absorbing waveguide, was subsequently used to calibrate the other four hydrophones by comparison, again using the ultrasonically absorbing waveguide. In comparison to existing methods, the use of the ultrasonically absorbing waveguide enabled the low-frequency calibration limit of a membrane hydrophone with a ring diameter of 50 mm to be reduced from 400 kHz to 200 kHz.

To support the development of clinical applications of high-frequency ultrasound, appropriate tissue-mimicking materials (TMMs) are required whose acoustic properties have been measured using validated techniques. This paper describes the characterisation of the sound speed (phase velocity) and attenuation coefficient of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) agar-based TMM over the frequency range 1 to 60 MHz. Measurements implemented a broadband through-transmission substitution immersion technique over two overlapping frequency ranges, with co-axially aligned 50 MHz centre-frequency transducers employed for characterisation above 15 MHz. In keeping with usual practice employed within the technical literature, thin acoustic windows (membranes) made of 12-μm-thick Mylar protected the TMM from water damage. Various important sources of uncertainty that could compromise measurement accuracy have been identified and evaluated through a combination of experimental studies and modelling. These include TMM sample thickness, measured both manually and acoustically, and the influence of interfacial losses that, even for thin protective membranes, are significant at the frequencies of interest. In agreement with previous reports, the attenuation coefficient of the IEC TMM exhibited non-linear frequency dependence, particularly above 20 MHz, yielding a value of 0.93 ± 0.04 dB cm(-1) MHz(-1) at 60 MHz, derived at 21 ± 0.5°C. For the first time, phase velocity, measured with an estimated uncertainty of ±3.1 m s(-1), has been found to be dispersive over this extended frequency range, increasing from 1541 m s(-1) at 1 MHz to 1547 m s(-1) at 60 MHz. This work will help standardise acoustic property measurements, and establishes a reference measurement capability for TMMs underpinning clinical applications at elevated frequencies.

A laser interferometer designed to measure acoustic displacements at megahertz frequencies, which has been the basis of a primary standard for the calibration of ultrasonic hydrophones for over ten years, is described. The interferometer is of the Michelson type and is designed to measure the acoustic particle displacement by sensing the movement of a thin plastic membrane placed in the field of an ultrasonic transducer. The acoustic pressure is derived from the measurement of displacement and the hydrophone is calibrated by substituting it for the pellicle. Various sources of uncertainty are described, including acoustooptic corrections, the frequency response of the interferometer, the acoustic properties of the thin membrane, and the lack of ideal plane-wave conditions. Highest calibration accuracy is achievable for membrane hydrophones, with a relative standard uncertainty, for a confidence level of 95%, of 0.040 at 0.5 MHz, 0.035 from 1 MHz to 7 MHz, 0.046 at 20 MHz and increasing to 0.250 at 60 MHz. The dissemination of the primary standard calibration method, which uses membrane hydrophones as secondary standards, is also described. These hydrophones are shown to have predictable performance properties and long-term stability, making them ideal secondary standards and choice as gold-standard reference devices worldwide.