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BACKGROUND: Comparisons of the relation of diet with coronary heart disease (CHD) between countries with similar socioeconomic environments have been few. Patients in Australia and New Zealand (n = 9014) who participated in a large secondary prevention trial had significantly different CHD mortality rates. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to ascertain the effects of nutrient consumption on cardiovascular disease risk in patients from the 2 countries. DESIGN: Nutrient consumption patterns were surveyed in a subgroup of 1077 patients on 3 occasions over 4 y during an intervention trial with a statin. RESULTS: Within the entire cohort of 9014 patients, the New Zealanders had significantly (40%) more cardiovascular deaths than did the Australians. In the subgroup of 1077 patients, the New Zealanders were found at entry to have eaten significantly more total (69.34 +/- 12.35 compared with 66.45 +/- 12.9 g/d) and saturated (26.23 +/- 8.41 compared with 24.37 +/- 7.36 g/d) fat (P < 0.001 for each) and to have significantly (4%) higher concentrations of LDL cholesterol (3.96 +/- 0.74 compared with 3.8 +/- 0.76 mmol/L; P < 0.001) than did the Australians. At baseline, patients with previous coronary artery bypass grafting had diets that were significantly different from those of patients without previous coronary artery bypass grafting. Relations between nutrients and plasma lipids confirmed the direct effects of saturated fatty acids on LDL cholesterol and of alcohol on plasma triacylglycerol and HDL cholesterol. Dietary counseling throughout the trial led to significant improvements in compliance with guidelines. However, neither the baseline nor the improved 1-y nutrient intakes predicted future changes in cardiovascular events. CONCLUSION: Differences in CHD mortality and in LDL-cholesterol concentrations between 2 populations with similar socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds were consistent with the amounts and types of fats eaten. Copyright © 2005 American Society for Clinical Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background -- In 2002, under the auspices of the Australian and New Zealand government departments of health, the NHMRC established a Working Party to develop a set of Nutrient Reference Values for Australia and New Zealand. The working party's brief was to ensure that the recommendations were based on best available scientific evidence. Given the limited resources available for de novo assessment, the development of the reference values was to be based on the processes and recommendations that the United States:Canadian Governments used to develop their Dietary Reference Intakes. However, the Working Party was to take into account any unique aspects of the populations in Australia and New Zealand including environmental, geographical, physiological, ethnic and cultural factors of both countries; to consider new scientific evidence and other recent recommendations from countries such as the UK, the European Union countries or FAO:WHO and to follow processes and standards acceptable to the Australian and New Zealand governments Review -- The first step in establishing the Nutrient Reference Values was to elicit expert reviews from specialist reviewers in Australia and New Zealand for each of the nutrients that had been identified in earlier joint meetings of Australian and New Zealand researchers and practitioners, as being of importance. These reviews were then assessed by the Working Party resulting in draft Nutrient Reference Values for all ages and lifestages being set for 35 nutrients. For infants an additional two recommendations were set for total fat and total carbohydrate. A further six nutrients were considered but no recommendations were made for any age of lifestage group as essentiality could not be clearly established. As well as establishing a set of reference values for nutrients which were adequate for physiological needs and which would prevent deficiency states (Estimated Average Requirements; Recommended Dietary Intakes or Adequate Intakes) or prevent toxicity (Upper Level of Intake), additional ranges (Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges) or targets (Suggested Dietary Targets) were set for some nutrients implicated in chronic disease etiology at levels that might prevent or alleviate the chronic disease burden. After setting the draft Reference Values a modelling process was undertaken to ensure that the recommendations were feasible. The draft Nutrient Reference Values were then sent out for public consultation in both Australia and New Zealand for a period of three months with just over 60 submissions being made. Issues which received the greatest prominence in submissions related to the feasibility of attaining intakes in various population groups in line with some of the recommendations (eg sodium, folate) and the need for updating population intake data, as well as nutrient and food intake guidelines to account for proposed changes. These submissions were then considered by the Working Party, the document and recommendations amended as necessary and sent for final process review. They were considered by the Health Advisory Committee of the NHMRC and then the Council itself for approval as well as to the Australian and New Zealand Government Departments of Health. Conclusions -- The NRV review process highlighted the limited data available for many nutrients and the need for ongoing research in this area. The data are often scant or drawn from studies that have substantial limitations. Apart from studies of frank deficiency disease, there are few studies that address the effects of inadequate intake on specific health indicators. The process also highlighted the need for current information on population intake data particularly in setting Adequate Intake figures which in the absence of reliable experimental data are based on median population intakes.… [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This analysis of the National Nutrition Survey of 1995-96 shows that whilst most Australians still consume red meat as part of their diet, they appear to be eating substantially less than reported in the 1983 National Dietary Survey of Adults. For metropolitan adults, intakes appear to have fallen by 40% between 1983 and 1995-96. In the 1995-96 survey, mean daily intake for men on the day of the study was 88 g and for women was 45 g (cooked weight of meat, as eaten). The mean intake of red meat was consistent with the recommendations of the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating. About 55% of the total red meat was eaten as cuts (steak, chops, etc), with the remainder being consumed as part of mixed dishes or products. Red meat contributed 6% of total energy, 20% of the daily protein, 14% of the iron (52% of haem iron), 27% of the zinc and 24% of vitamin B 12 intakes but only 8% of total fat intake. Around two-thirds of red meat cuts were reported to be either trimmed of fat or lean when eaten. Those consuming higher amounts of red meat on the day of the survey also consumed more vegetables but had similar intakes of cereal and cereal-based foods, fats and oils, dairy products and sugar products and dishes. Fruit intake was inconsistent across red meat consumption categories and was highest in moderate red meat eaters and in those who did not eat red meat, and lower in both the light red meat eaters and the heavier red meat eaters. Intakes of iron and zinc reported on the day of the 1995-96 survey were below the recommended daily intakes for substantial numbers of participants. In adolescent girls, 25% had iron intakes below 70% of the lower end of the recommended intake range on the day of the survey and in women aged 19 to 24 years this figure rose to just under 40% of the survey sample. For zinc, over 40% of females over 12 years of age and 30% of men over 65 years had intakes below 70% of the recommended intake on the day of the survey. The percentages of those whose diets were below 70% of the recommended dietary intakes for zinc or iron on the day of the survey were related strongly to red meat consumption on that day. For example, in women aged 19 to 44 years who consumed no red meat on the day, half had intakes below 70% of the lower end of the range of recommended dietary intakes compared to just over 30% of those consuming between 50 g and 84 g of red meat and just over 10% for those consuming from 120 to 174 g of red meat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveWe examined the relative contributions of meat and fish to the dietary intakes of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCn3PUFAs).MethodsA database detailing 4550 foods and 4298 recipes recorded in the 1995 Australian National Nutrition Survey (NNS95) was updated with new fatty acid compositional data then used to determine intakes from 24-h dietary recalls of 13858 individuals. This approach was validated with food frequency questionnaires from 8321 of these individuals.ResultsFatty acid intakes were comparable to our previous estimates from NNS95 except for LCn3PUFAs, which were considerably higher. Mean intakes in adults estimated from the 24-h recalls were 75, 71, and 100 mg/d for eicosapentaenoic acid, docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid, respectively, giving a total of 246 mg/d. This is 30% greater than our previously published estimate of LCn3PUFA intake, the difference being attributable to inaccuracies in pre-existing data on the fatty acid composition of certain foods, particularly the DPA content of meats. We estimate that 43% of the LCn3PUFAs consumed by adults in the NNS95 survey originated from meat, poultry, and game compared with 48% from fish and seafood. Steak and kidney pies and other meat-containing cereal-based products accounted for an additional 4%. Beef and lamb contributed 28% of the total LCn3PUFA intake, whereas pork and poultry contributed 4% and 10%, respectively. Food frequency questionnaires produced similar results.ConclusionMeat is a major source of LCn3PUFA, particularly DPA, for most Australians. When DPA is included in the definition of LCn3PUFAs, almost half the average adult intake of LCn3PUFA appears to originate from meat sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background -- Adequate nutrition has been linked to cognitive performance in a number of studies, particularly in infancy and preschool children, but there is limited data for primary school-aged children whose cognitive functions continue to develop as the brain continues to grow. Objective -- To investigate links between nutrition and cognition in 6-10 year-old Australian and Indonesian primary school children participating in a longitudinal supplementation study, who are either apparently well-nourished or at risk of undernutrition. Design -- Approximately 400 children from each country took part in a four arm intervention study comprising a placebo arm and three supplement intervention arms: one with B vitamins, iron and zinc at about 1RDA per day, one with omega 3 fats and the third a combination of these two. Measures of attention and concentration, speed of information processing, memory, executive function, verbal ability and school achievement were obtained at baseline, 6 and 12 months, blood measures for iron, zinc, folate, B12 and plasma lipids at baseline and 12 months. Outcomes -- At baseline, associations between nutrient status and cognitive performance varied between country, gender and cognitive measures. Correlations, adjusting for age, indicated consistent, though weak, significant relationships between iron status and cognitive performance for both Australia and Indonesia, and to a lesser extent, between cognitive performance and zinc status for Australia and folate and omega fatty acid status for Indonesia. After 12 months of supplementation effects were seen for the vitamin/mineral interventions. Conclusions -- In cross-sectional analysis there are some weak but significant associations between iron status and cognitive performance in both apparently adequately and marginally nourished school-age children. Low level supplementation over one year suggests that the mineral/vitamin supplementation could benefit some children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background -- Recent evidence suggests that the inclusion of low glycaemic index (GI) foods in the diet may be protective against cardiovascular disease via either increased HDL-cholesterol concentrations, reduced inflammatory response in the endothelium, or both mechanisms. Objective -- To describe the nutritional characteristics of patients with existing cardiovascular disease who were consuming a low versus high GI diet. Design -- As part of baseline data collection for the LIPID trial, 1,077 participants also agreed to complete a semiquantified FFQ investigating intakes of more than 170 foods. All foods which contributed significantly to dietary carbohydrate intake were allocated a GI value where available. Total dietary GI was calculated by determining an individuals average daily glycaemic load and dividing by the average total carbohydrate consumed in grams per day. Patients were classified into 4 groups according to their quartile of dietary GI, and the relationship between nutrition variables and GI was investigated by regressions of individual patient nutrition variables on GI quartile medians. Outcomes -- There were significant positive relationships between dietary GI and dietary energy, fat and carbohydrate intakes, and significant negative relationships between dietary GI and protein and alcohol intakes. Dietary GI was also significantly positively related to mono- and poly-unsaturated fat intakes, but not to saturated fat intake. Conclusion -- These data indicate that those patients with existing cardiovascular disease who tended to eat a diet that was higher in GI were also consuming more energy, less alcohol, more dietary carbohydrate and more dietary fat (including more mono- and poly-unsaturated fats), at the expense of dietary protein intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the contribution of red meat in the intake of very long chain omega-3 fatty acid (VLC ω3) among adults based on the 1995 National Nutrition Survey in Australia. The survey found that about 42.7% of VLC ω3 intake in adults originated from meat, poultry and game while 48.0% came from fish and seafood. The meat content of pies and other cereal-based products contributed to about 5.7% of VLC ω3 intake. It has been concluded that most Australians obtain VLC ω3 from red meat.

Populations are not meeting recommended intakes of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFA). The aim was (i) to develop a database on n-3 LCPUFA enriched products; (ii) to undertake dietary modelling exercise using four dietary approaches to meet the recommendations and (iii) to determine the cost of the models. Six n-3 LCPUFA enriched foods were identified. Fish was categorised by n-3 LCPUFA content (mg/100 g categories as "excellent" "good" and "moderate"). The four models to meet recommended n-3 LCPUFA intakes were (i) fish only; (ii) moderate fish (with red meat and enriched foods); (iii) fish avoiders (red meat and enriched foods only); and (iv) lacto-ovo vegetarian diet (enriched foods only). Diets were modelled using the NUTTAB2010 database and n-3 LCPUFA were calculated and compared to the Suggested Dietary Targets (SDT). The cost of meeting these recommendations was calculated per 100 mg n-3 LCPUFA. The SDT were achieved for all life-stages with all four models. The weekly food intake in number of serves to meet the n-3 LCPUFA SDT for all life-stages for each dietary model were: (i) 2 "excellent" fish; (ii) 1 "excellent" and 1 "good" fish, and depending on life-stage, 3-4 lean red meat, 0-2 eggs and 3-26 enriched foods; (iii) 4 lean red meat, and 20-59 enriched foods; (iv) 37-66 enriched foods. Recommended intakes of n-3 LCPUFA were easily met by the consumption of fish, which was the cheapest source of n-3 LCPUFA. Other strategies may be required to achieve the recommendations including modifying the current food supply through feeding practices, novel plant sources and more enriched foods.

This review considers the research to date on the role of nutrition in cognitive development in children, with a particular emphasis on the relatively neglected post-infancy period. Undernutrition and deficiencies of iodine, iron, and folate are all important for the development of the brain and the emergent cognitive functions, and there is some evidence to suggest that zinc, vitamin B12, and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids may also be important. Considerations for future research include a focus on the interactions between micronutrients and macronutrients that might be influential in the optimization of cognitive development; investigation of the impact of nutritional factors in children after infancy, with particular emphasis on effects on the developing executive functions; and selection of populations that might benefit from nutritional interventions, for example, children with nutrient deficiencies or those suffering from attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder and dyslexia.

The dietary behaviours of and recent dietary change by volunteers for a nutrition education program were compared with those of a more population-representative sample. The population sample was randomly selected from the electoral rolls of three Australian cities. Those selected received questionnaires which were to be completed and returned by mail. The sample of volunteers was recruited from the electoral rolls of suburbs of either high or low social status in one of these cities. Volunteers were posted a questionnaire, to be returned in person. A quantified food frequency questionnaire was used to estimate relative intake of 19 nutrients, plus energy intake. Occupation, age, sex, reported recent dietary change and diet-related beliefs were also assessed. The population sample was weighted to the age and occupational distribution of the education program sample. Compared to the 874 respondents in the population sample (70.4 per cent response rate), the 487 volunteers (24.2 per cent response rate) for the nutrition education program had healthier nutrient intakes and reported more dietary behaviour changes. Recruitment in the education program was greater in areas of higher social status (32 per cent) than in areas of lower social status (20 per cent). The potential effect of such a program on the whole population was demonstrated by the proportions that volunteered and the characteristics of these volunteers. The need to provide a range of opportunities for changing dietary behaviour, according to the health-related behaviours and beliefs of target groups and their socio-economic circumstances, was highlighted.

Relationships between dietary nutrients and plasma prolactin concentration were studied in 249 women with a history of nonskin cancers among first-degree female relatives. For each quintile of nutrient density, the odds ratio (OR), relative to the lowest quintile, of having an elevated (above the median) prolactin concentration was estimated by logistic regression, taking into account parity, menopausal status, and current tobacco-smoking habits. For nutrient densities estimated from 24-h recall data there was a significant positive association between plasma prolactin concentration and increasing saturated fatty acid intake; the OR of elevated prolactin in the top quintile was 3.1 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2-8.1] and there was a negative association with vitamin C [OR in the top quintile 0.28, (95% CI 0.10-0.78)]. For usual nutrient densities (estimated by quantitative food frequency questionnaire) there was a statistically significant trend (P = 0.04) toward lower prolactin concentrations with increasing sodium density, and a marginally significant positive trend (P = 0.07) with increasing dietary density of refined sugars.

In affluent nations, there has been an increasing awareness of the links between diet and the incidence of chronic diseases such as heart disease, hypertension and cancer. In some of these countries, this has led to improvements in the dietary profiles of the community and its health-related status. Studies of random samples of the Australian population carried out in the last decade or so have shown a downward trend in the consumption of total and saturated fats and salt and an increase in polyunsaturated fat and fibre. However, detailed assessment of food consumption patterns reveal that the changes in dietary patterns relate predominantly to improvement in choice within food categories rather than a fundamental change in the relative amounts of foods consumed across categories such as meats, dairy foods, cereal grains and fruits and vegetables. The surveys show that knowledge about the links between diet and disease is encouragingly high in most sectors of the Australian community as is concern about the healthiness of the food supply but time constraints, the perception that "healthy" foods are boring foods, lack of information on packaging and family pressures were seen as major barriers to dietary change. A further barrier is lack of knowledge about the balance of foods required and in particular, the value of cereal foods. Analysis of the dietary data show that further significant improvements in the dietary profile are only likely to accrue from a fundamental change in the relative use of the major food categories.

In recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the role that diet can play in the promotion, retardation or amelioration of the cancer process. This has led to the development of dietary guidelines for cancer prevention by health authorities in several Western societies. However, there is still limited information about the sociodemographic determinants of intake of foods and nutrients of interest in many of these countries. A study of the dietary intake of a random sample of residents of the State of Victoria in Australia showed that women, those in the older age groups and in the higher occupational ranks, had diets more in line with current recommendations for cancer prevention--the most marked differences being between men and women. However, the sociodemographic differences were relatively small compared with the low rate of overall compliance with the guidelines.

Relationships between changes in weight and blood lipids were examined in 655 subjects who had enrolled for a fitness programme. At entry data were obtained on weight, fitness, lipids, physical activity, diet, and smoking. On re-examination 2 years later approximately half the sample had maintained stable weight (+/- 2 kg), a quarter had lost (- greater than 2 kg), and a quarter had gained weight (+ greater than 2 kg). Analyses of weight change/lipid change relationships included comparisons of lipid changes in weight 'stable', 'losers', and 'gainers' groups, and multiple regression analyses controlling for the effects of age, diet, and fitness. It was found that changes in weight and lipids were significantly related, the relationship was stronger than between any other independent variable and changes in lipids, and it was stronger for men than for women. It was concluded that there is an independent cause and effect relationship between weight and lipids to an extent useful for clinical and public health purposes.

Sheep foetuses were surgically thyroidectomized at 50-60 days gestation, when thyroid function begins, and the pregnancy was then allowed to continue until 90, 120 or 150 days (term). At these times the foetuses were removed by caesarean delivery, exsanguinated, weighed and dissected. The central nervous system was divided--cerebral hemispheres, brain stem, cerebellum and spinal cord for subsequent analysis. Comparison was made with sham operations on seven foetuses. Thyroidectomy led to a fall in body weight (24.7%) and brain weight (11.7%) at 120 days and 150 days, 31.1% and 24.5% respectively. The hemispheres showed the greatest change and the cerebellum the least. DNA and protein contents were reduced in the hemispheres and cerebellum at 150 days, while in the brain stem and spinal cord the DNA content was not significantly affected. Protein content was, however, reduced indicating a reduced cell size, but not a reduced cell number as in the other two regions. Somatic changes included reduced wool growth, delayed osseous development in the limbs (X-ray assessment) a reduced heart weight (39.1%) and an increased pituitary weight (48.1%). The thyroidectomized lambs failed to survive for more than a few hours after birth or caesarean delivery at 150 days. The findings indicate significant effects of foetal thyroidectomy on brain development in the sheep late in pregnancy along with other evidence of foetal hypothyroidism.

Royal Australian Air Force recruits completed a dietary frequency inventory (n = 309), a short social desirability inventory phrased in dietary terms (SDF, n = 309), and, in addition, a subsample answered the Marlow-Crowne social desirability scale (n = 96). Correlational and factor analyses showed that the SDF scores were related to the MC scale; and, the scores on the SDF scale were significantly related to the reported consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables and snack foods. In a further study, 20 lay persons were asked to sort the 66 foods listed in the dietary inventory into three categories: nutritionist-approved foods; nutritionist-disapproved foods; and, an 'uncertain' category. The results confirmed the finding that fresh fruit and vegetables were socially desirable foods, but sweet foods were not. It is concluded that social approval needs may influence the manner in which individuals report their consumption of these foods.

Data from the Apparent Consumption of Foodstuffs publications of the Australian Bureau of Statistics have, until recently, been the major source of information in Australia about the consumption of refined sugars. This database, which relies on national figures for production, importation, export, storage and stocks, and on population statistics, had indicated that some 14% of the total energy that was available in Australia was derived from refined sugars. Similar figures have been derived for both the United States and United Kingdom by means of this kind of national food-availability database. However, a recent reanalysis of a large-scale dietary survey of individuals in the United States has indicated a much lower level of consumption of refined sugars. In recent years, several large-scale surveys of individuals' consumption patterns in the Australian population have been carried out by the Social Nutrition Program at the CSIRO Division of Human Nutrition. These surveys indicate that the mean level of consumption of refined sugars is not as high as that which previously was estimated from Apparent Consumption data. However, there was a wide range of intakes and a substantial proportion of individuals with intakes that were above recommended levels.

The pattern of normal foetal brain development has been described for the Merino sheep. Controlled flock matings were used and foetuses removed by hysterotomy at 40, 54, 67, 81, 90, 95, 109, 121 and 150 days of gestation. Lambs at 7 days after birth and adults were also studied. The CNS was dissected, separated and weighed as four segments--cerebral hemispheres, brain stem, cerebellum and spinal cord. Determinations of DNA, RNA, protein, cholesterol and water content were subsequently carried out on each segment. Brain weight increased from 0.264 g (40 days) to 52.74 g at 150 days. The ratio to body weight decreased from 6.7% (40 days) to 1.5% (150 days). DNA increased more rapidly from 40 to 90 days in the cerebral hemispheres and brain stem than in the cerebellum and spinal cord and this increase preceded the main increase in weight. Increases in cholesterol and decreases in water content were also more marked in the cerebral hemispheres and brain stem. Increase in brain weight occurred in two phases, one up to 90 days followed by a more rapid and larger increase after 90 days which continued to birth. These two phases appear to reflect an increase in neuroblast multiplication followed by neuroglial multiplication and myelination respectively. At birth, brain weight had reached 50% of adult size, the cerebral hemispheres 52% of adult size, the cerebellum 40% and spinal cord 40%. The relative maturity of the brain at birth justifies the classification of the sheep as a prenatal brain developer.