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The incidence, aetiology and pathophysiology of pneumomediastinum (PM), an uncommon and potentially serious disease in neonates and children, were evaluated. A retrospective chart review of all patients diagnosed with PM who were hospitalised in the intensive care unit of the University Children's Hospital Zürich, Switzerland, from 2000 to 2006, was preformed. We analysed the incidence, severity and causes of PM and investigated the possible differences between neonatal and non-neonatal cases. Seven children and nine neonates were identified with PM. All patients had a good outcome. Six cases of PM in the group of children older than 4weeks were deemed to be caused by trauma, infection and sports, whereas one case was idiopathic. All nine neonatal cases presented with symptoms of respiratory distress. We were able to attribute four cases of neonatal PM to pulmonary infection, immature lungs and ventilatory support. Five neonatal cases remained unexplained after careful review of the hospital records. In conclusion, PM in children and neonates has a good prognosis. Mostly, it is associated with extrapulmonary air at other sites. It is diagnosed by chest X-ray alone. We identified mechanical events leading to the airway rupture in most children >4weeks of life, whereas we were unable to identify a cause in half of the neonates studied (idiopathic PM)

Few episodes of suspected infection observed in paediatric intensive care are classifiable without ambiguity by a priori defined criteria. Most require additional expert judgement. Recently, we observed a high variability in antibiotic prescription rates, not explained by the patients' clinical data or underlying diseases. We hypothesised that the disagreement of experts in adjudication of episodes of suspected infection could be one of the potential causes for this variability. During a 5-month period, we included all patients of a 19-bed multidisciplinary, tertiary, neonatal and paediatric intensive care unit, in whom infection was clinically suspected and antibiotics were prescribed (n=183). Three experts (two senior ICU physicians and a specialist in infectious diseases) were provided with all patient data, laboratory and microbiological findings. All experts classified episodes according to a priori defined criteria into: proven sepsis, probable sepsis (negative cultures), localised infection and no infection. Episodes of proven viral infection and incomplete data sets were excluded. Of the remaining 167 episodes, 48 were classifiable by a priori criteria (n=28 proven sepsis, n= 20 no infection). The three experts only achieved limited agreement beyond chance in the remaining 119 episodes (kappa = 0.32, and kappa = 0.19 amongst the ICU physicians). The kappa is a measure of the degree of agreement beyond what would be expected by chance alone, with 0 indicating the chance result and 1 indicating perfect agreement. Conclusion: agreement of specialists in hindsight adjudication of episodes of suspected infection is of questionable reliability

Aim: To analyze the side effects of captopril, an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) in newborn and young infants. Methods: Retrospective analysis of side effects in 43 patients with congenital heart disease after cardiac surgery treated with captopril for heart failure during a two-year period. Results: Median age of the patients was 26days (range 6-310days), median weight 3.5kg (range 1.9-7.9kg). Initial median dose of captopril was 0.17 mg/kg/day (range 0.05-0.55mg/kg/day), slowly increased over 3-33days to a maximal median dose of 1.86 mg/kg/day (range 0.2-2.3mg/kg/day). All patients were additionally treated with diuretics. Side effects occurred in 17 patients (renal impairment or failure in 6, low blood pressure in 8, and oxygen saturation deficit in 3) requiring cessation or interruption in seven patients with renal impairment/failure (n=4), hypotension (n=1) and aorto-pulmonary shunting with low pulmonary perfusion (n=2). The six children who developed renal impairment or failure did so following a median delay of nine days after reaching the final dose and weighed on average 500g less than the other patients (P=0.046). All side effects were fully reversible. Conclusion: Side effects due to captopril were not dose-related in newborns and infants in this study. However, renal side effects occurred more often in smaller infants. Routine monitoring of infants on ACEI should include renal function tests, blood pressure and transcutaneous oxygen saturation measurements

Objective: Diaphragmatic paralysis (DP) caused by phrenic nerve injury is potentially life-threatening in infants. Phrenic nerve injury due to thoracic surgery is the most common cause of DP in children. We retrospectively analyzed incidence, surgical details, management and follow-up of our patients with DP after cardiac surgery to develop an algorithm for the management and follow-up. Methods: Retrospective analysis of 43 patients with DP after cardiac surgery performed between 1996 and 2000. Results: Median age at cardiac surgery was 1 month (range 3 days to 9 years). Incidence of DP was 5.4%. A trend towards higher incidences of DP were observed after arterial switch operation (10.8%, P=0.18), Fontan procedure (17.6%, P=0.056) and Blalock-Taussig Shunt (12.8%, P=0.10). Median time from cardiac surgery to surgical plication was 21 days (range 7-210 days). Transthoracic diaphragmatic plication was performed in 29/43 patients, no plication was done in 14/43 patients. Patients in whom diaphragmatic plication was required were younger (median age 2 months, range 21 days to 53 months versus 17.5 months, range 4 days to 110 months; P≪0.001). Indications for plication were failure to wean from ventilator (n=22), respiratory distress (n=4), cavopulmonary anastomosis (n=2), and failure to thrive (n=1). All these symptoms resolved after diaphragmatic plication, however, 8/29 patients with plication and 2/14 without plication died. Cause of death was not related to diaphragmatic plication in any patient. Position of plicated diaphragm was normal in 18/21 surviving patients 1 month after plication. In 2/12 surviving patients without plication hemidiaphragm showed a normal position 1 year after surgery. The rate of pulmonary infections was not significantly different during 12-60 months follow-up. Conclusions: DP is an occasional complication of cardiac surgery. High incidences of DP were seen after arterial switch operation, Fontan procedure and Blalock-Taussig shunt (BT). R

Aims: To compare the effect of fasting period duration on complication rates in neonates managed conservatively for necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) Bell stage II. Methods: We conducted a multicenter study to analyze retrospectively multiple data collected by standardized questionnaire on all admissions for NEC between January 2000 and December 2006. NEC was staged using modified Bell criteria. We divided the conservatively managed neonates with NEC Bell stage II into two groups (those fasted for <5days and those fasted for >5days) and compared the complication rates. Results: Of the 47 conservatively managed neonates Bell stage II, 30 (64%) fasted for <5days (range 1-4days) and 17 (36%) for >5days (range 6-16days). There were no significant differences for any of the patient characteristics analyzed. One (3%) and four (24%) neonates, respectively, developed post-NEC bowel stricture. One (3%) and two neonates (12%) suffered NEC relapse. None and five (29%) neonates developed catheter-related sepsis. Conclusion: Shorter fasting after NEC appears to lower morbidity after the acute phase of the disease. In particular, shorter-fasted neonates have significantly less catheter-related sepsis. We found no benefit in longer fasting

BACKGROUND: With more liberal visiting hours in paediatric intensive care practice, parents' presence at the bedside has increased. Parents may thus become involved in critical incidents as contributors or detectors of critical incidents or they may be affected by critical incidents. METHODS: Voluntary, anonymous, non-punitive critical incident reporting system. Parents' involvement in critical incidents has been evaluated retrospectively (January 2002 to August 2007). The reports were analysed regarding involvement of parents, age of child, unit (paediatric intensive care or intermediate neonatal nursery), critical incident severity, critical incident category, actual or potential harm to patient and/or parent (minor, moderate, major), delay between the critical incident and its detection, and implemented system changes. RESULTS: Overall, 2494 critical incidents have been reported. There were 101 critical incidents with parental involvement: parents as contributors to critical incident (18; 0.7%), parents discovering a critical incident (11; 0.4%), parents affected by critical incident (72; 2.9%). The most vulnerable categories regarding contribution and detection were drugs, line/drain disconnection, trauma and hygiene. Ten critical incidents precipitated by parents were of moderate severity and seven of potential major severity (six line/drain disconnections). The majority of the events (six) detected by parents were of potential moderate severity and four were of major severity. CONCLUSION: Because of their presence at the bedside, parents in the paediatric intensive care unit are inevitably involved in safety issues. It is not the parents' duty to guarantee the safety for their children, but parents should be encouraged to report anything that worries them. Only an established safety culture allows parents to articulate their concerns.

AIM: To analyze the side effects of captopril, an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) in newborn and young infants. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of side effects in 43 patients with congenital heart disease after cardiac surgery treated with captopril for heart failure during a two-year period. RESULTS: Median age of the patients was 26 days (range 6-310 days), median weight 3.5 kg (range 1.9-7.9 kg). Initial median dose of captopril was 0.17 mg/kg/day (range 0.05-0.55 mg/kg/day), slowly increased over 3-33 days to a maximal median dose of 1.86 mg/kg/day (range 0.2-2.3 mg/kg/day). All patients were additionally treated with diuretics. Side effects occurred in 17 patients (renal impairment or failure in 6, low blood pressure in 8, and oxygen saturation deficit in 3) requiring cessation or interruption in seven patients with renal impairment/failure (n=4), hypotension (n=1) and aorto-pulmonary shunting with low pulmonary perfusion (n=2). The six children who developed renal impairment or failure did so following a median delay of nine days after reaching the final dose and weighed on average 500 g less than the other patients (P=0.046). All side effects were fully reversible. CONCLUSION: Side effects due to captopril were not dose-related in newborns and infants in this study. However, renal side effects occurred more often in smaller infants. Routine monitoring of infants on ACEI should include renal function tests, blood pressure and transcutaneous oxygen saturation measurements.

Objective: Diaphragmatic paralysis (DP) caused by phrenic nerve injury is potentially life-threatening in infants. Phrenic nerve injury due to thoracic surgery is the most common cause of DP in children. We retrospectively analyzed incidence, surgical details, management and follow-up of our patients with DP after cardiac surgery to develop an algorithm for the management and follow-up. Methods: Retrospective analysis of 43 patients with DP after cardiac surgery performed between 1996 and 2000. Results: Median age at cardiac surgery was 1 month (range 3 days to 9 years). Incidence of DP was 5.4%. A trend towards higher incidences of DP were observed after arterial switch operation (10.8%, P=0.18), Fontan procedure (17.6%, P=0.056) and Blalock-Taussig Shunt (12.8%, P=0.10). Median time from cardiac surgery to surgical plication was 21 days (range 7-210 days). Transthoracic diaphragmatic plication was performed in 29/43 patients, no plication was done in 14/43 patients. Patients in whom diaphragmatic plication was required were younger (median age 2 months, range 21 days to 53 months versus 17.5 months, range 4 days to 110 months; P≪0.001). Indications for plication were failure to wean from ventilator (n=22), respiratory distress (n=4), cavopulmonary anastomosis (n=2), and failure to thrive (n=1). All these symptoms resolved after diaphragmatic plication, however, 8/29 patients with plication and 2/14 without plication died. Cause of death was not related to diaphragmatic plication in any patient. Position of plicated diaphragm was normal in 18/21 surviving patients 1 month after plication. In 2/12 surviving patients without plication hemidiaphragm showed a normal position 1 year after surgery. The rate of pulmonary infections was not significantly different during 12-60 months follow-up. Conclusions: DP is an occasional complication of cardiac surgery. High incidences of DP were seen after arterial switch operation, Fontan procedure and Blalock-Taussig shunt (BT). R

Few episodes of suspected infection observed in paediatric intensive care are classifiable without ambiguity by a priori defined criteria. Most require additional expert judgement. Recently, we observed a high variability in antibiotic prescription rates, not explained by the patients' clinical data or underlying diseases. We hypothesised that the disagreement of experts in adjudication of episodes of suspected infection could be one of the potential causes for this variability. During a 5-month period, we included all patients of a 19-bed multidisciplinary, tertiary, neonatal and paediatric intensive care unit, in whom infection was clinically suspected and antibiotics were prescribed (n=183). Three experts (two senior ICU physicians and a specialist in infectious diseases) were provided with all patient data, laboratory and microbiological findings. All experts classified episodes according to a priori defined criteria into: proven sepsis, probable sepsis (negative cultures), localised infection and no infection. Episodes of proven viral infection and incomplete data sets were excluded. Of the remaining 167 episodes, 48 were classifiable by a priori criteria (n=28 proven sepsis, n= 20 no infection). The three experts only achieved limited agreement beyond chance in the remaining 119 episodes (kappa = 0.32, and kappa = 0.19 amongst the ICU physicians). The kappa is a measure of the degree of agreement beyond what would be expected by chance alone, with 0 indicating the chance result and 1 indicating perfect agreement. Conclusion: agreement of specialists in hindsight adjudication of episodes of suspected infection is of questionable reliability