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SUMMARY Diabetic foot infections (DFI) are a public health problem worldwide. DFI are polymicrobial, biofilm-associated infections involving complex bacterial communities organized in functional equivalent pathogroups, all including anaerobes. Indeed, multiple pathophysiological factors favor the growth of anaerobes in this context. However, the prevalence, role, and contribution of anaerobes in wound evolution remain poorly characterized due to their challenging detection. Studies based on culture reviewed herein showed a weighted average of 17% of patients with anaerobes. Comparatively, the weighted average of patients with anaerobes identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing was 83.8%. Culture largely underestimated not only the presence but also the diversity of anaerobes compared with cultivation-independent approaches but both methods showed that anaerobic Gram-negative bacilli and Gram-positive cocci were the most commonly identified in DFI. Anaerobes were more present in deeper lesions, and their detection was associated with fever, malodorous lesions, and ulcer depth and duration. More specifically, initial abundance of Peptoniphilus spp. was associated with ulcer-impaired healing, Fusobacterium spp. detection was significantly correlated with the duration of DFI, and the presence of Bacteroides spp. was significantly associated with amputation. Antimicrobial resistance of anaerobes in DFI remains slightly studied and warrants more consideration in the context of increasing resistance of the most frequently identified anaerobes in DFI. The high rate of patients with DFI-involving anaerobes, the increased knowledge on the species identified, their virulence factors, and their potential role in wound evolution support recommendations combining debridement and antibiotic therapy effective on anaerobes in moderate and severe DFI., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Dysbiosis within microbiomes has been increasingly implicated in many systemic illnesses, such as cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, respiratory infections, and Alzheimer disease (Ad). The correlation between Ad and microbial dysbiosis has been repeatedly shown, yet the etiologic cause of microbial dysbiosis remains elusive. From a neuropathology perspective, abnormal (often age-related) changes in the brain, associated structures, and bodily lumens tend toward an accumulation of oxygen-depleted pathologic structures, which are anaerobically selective niches. These anaerobic environments may promote progressive change in the microbial community proximal to the brain and thus deserve further investigation. In this review, we identify and explore what is known about the anaerobic niche near or associated with the brain and the anaerobes that it is harbors. We identify the anaerobe stakeholders within microbiome communities and the impacts on the neurodegenerative processes associated with Ad. Chronic oral dysbiosis in anaerobic dental pockets and the composition of the gut microbiota from fecal stool are the 2 largest anaerobic niche sources of bacterial transference to the brain. At the blood-brain barrier, cerebral atherosclerotic plaques are predominated by anaerobic species intimately associated with the brain vasculature. Focal cerebritis/brain abscess and corpora amylacea may also establish chronic anaerobic niches in direct proximity to brain parenchyma. In exploring the anaerobic niche proximal to the brain, we identify research opportunities to explore potential sources of microbial dysbiosis associated with Ad., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: The relationship between tuberculosis (TB), one of the leading infectious causes of death worldwide, and the microbiome, which is critical for health, is poorly understood., Methods: To identify potential microbiome-host interactions, profiling of the oral, sputum and stool microbiota [n = 58 cases, n = 47 culture-negative symptomatic controls (SCs)] and whole blood transcriptome were done in pre-treatment presumptive pulmonary TB patients. This was a cross-sectional study. Microbiota were also characterised in close contacts of cases (CCCs, n = 73) and close contacts of SCs (CCSCs, n = 82) without active TB., Findings: Cases and SCs each had similar α- and β-diversities in oral washes and sputum, however, β-diversity differed in stool (PERMANOVA p = 0•035). Cases were enriched with anaerobes in oral washes, sputum (Paludibacter, Lautropia in both) and stool (Erysipelotrichaceae, Blautia, Anaerostipes) and their stools enriched in microbial genes annotated as amino acid and carbohydrate metabolic pathways. In pairwise comparisons with their CCCs, cases had Megasphaera-enriched oral and sputum microbiota and Bifidobacterium-, Roseburia-, and Dorea-depleted stools. Compared to their CCSCs, SCs had reduced α-diversities and many differential taxa per specimen type. Cases differed transcriptionally from SCs in peripheral blood (PERMANOVA p = 0•001). A co-occurrence network analysis showed stool taxa, Erysipelotrichaceae and Blautia, to negatively co-correlate with enriched "death receptor" and "EIF2 signalling" pathways whereas Anaerostipes positively correlated with enriched "interferon signalling", "Nur77 signalling" and "inflammasome" pathways; all of which are host pathways associated with disease severity. In contrast, none of the taxa enriched in SCs correlated with host pathways., Interpretation: TB-specific microbial relationships were identified in oral washes, induced sputum, and stool from cases before the confounding effects of antibiotics. Specific anaerobes in cases' stool predict upregulation of pro-inflammatory immunological pathways, supporting the gut microbiota's role in TB., Funding: European & Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership, South African-Medical Research Council, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest GT received in-kind donations (GeneXpert cartridges and machines) from Cepheid and FIND. Cepheid had no role in study design or interpretation of results. BWPR received travel support from Cepheid to attend a conference and present unrelated data. All other authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Bacteria identified in the oral cavity are highly complicated. They include approximately 1000 species with a diverse variety of commensal microbes that play crucial roles in the health status of individuals. Epidemiological studies related to molecular pathology have revealed that there is a close relationship between oral microbiota and tumor occurrence. Oral microbiota has attracted considerable attention for its role in in-situ or distant tumor progression. Anaerobic oral bacteria with potential pathogenic abilities, especially Fusobacterium nucleatum and Porphyromonas gingivalis, are well studied and have close relationships with various types of carcinomas. Some aerobic bacteria such as Parvimonas are also linked to tumorigenesis. Moreover, human papillomavirus, oral fungi, and parasites are closely associated with oropharyngeal carcinoma. Microbial dysbiosis, colonization, and translocation of oral microbiota are necessary for implementation of carcinogenic functions. Various underlying mechanisms of oral microbiota-induced carcinogenesis have been reported including excessive inflammatory reaction, immunosuppression of host, promotion of malignant transformation, antiapoptotic activity, and secretion of carcinogens. In this review, we have systemically described the impact of oral microbial abnormalities on carcinogenesis and the future directions in this field for bringing in new ideas for effective prevention of tumors., (© 2020 The Authors. Cancer Medicine published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Lemierre's syndrome, also known as post-anginal septicemia or necrobacillosis, is characterized by bacteremia, internal jugular vein thrombophlebitis, and metastatic septic emboli secondary to acute pharyngeal infections. Modern physicians have "forgotten" this disease. The most common causative agent of Lemierre's syndrome is Fusobacterium necrophorum, followed by Fusobacterium nucleatum and anaerobic bacteria such as streptococci, staphylococci, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The causative focus mostly originated from pharyngitis or tonsillitis, accounting for over 85% of the cases of Lemierre's syndrome. Pneumonia or pleural empyema is the most common metastatic infection in Lemierre's syndrome. Antimicrobial therapy should be prescribed for 3-6 weeks. The treatment regimens include metronidazole and β-lactam antibiotics. In recent years, the antibiotic stewardship program has resulted in decreased antibiotic prescription for upper respiratory tract infections. The incidence of Lemierre's syndrome has increased over the past decade. F. necrophorum is an underestimated cause of acute pharyngitis or tonsillitis. A high index of suspicion is required for the differential diagnosis of acute tonsillopharyngitis with persistent neck pain and septic syndrome., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Introduction: Anaerobes play an important etiological role in invasive infections, and may be clinically significant pathogens in bloodstream infections and septicemia, but little data are available on their true prevalence in Hungary. Aim: The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of anaerobic bacteria in the blood culture samples received at the Institute of Clinical Microbiology, University of Szeged, retrospectively. Method: Blood culture samples received at the Institute were analyzed over a 5-year period (01. 01. 2013-31. 12. 2017); the comparison was based on a similar study (2005-2009) conducted in the same region. Results: Between 2013 and 2017, our Institute received an average of 23,274 ± 2,756 blood culture bottles, of which an average of 10.5% were positive and 0.4% were positive for anaerobes (3.5-3.8/1000 bottles). Clinically significant anaerobic pathogens were predominantly Bacteroides fragilis group (39.9%) and Clostridium species (32.8%). Conclusion: Despite their relatively low numbers, anaerobic bacteria are considered important etiologic factors in bloodstream infections. Our results highlight the importance of modern identification methods in adequate anaerobic diagnostics. Orv Hetil. 2020; 161(19): 797-803., (© 2020 Szerző(k)/The Author(s).)

Background: Obligate anaerobes usually account for less than 10% of bacteria recovered from blood cultures (BC). The relevance of routine use of the anaerobic bottle is under debate. The aim of this study was to evaluate the utility of anaerobic bottles for the diagnosis of bloodstream infections (BSI)., Methods: We conducted a 6-month, retrospective, monocentric study in a tertiary hospital. All positive BC were grouped into a single episode of bacteremia when drawn within 7 consecutive days. Bacteremia were classified into contaminants and BSI. Charts of patients with BSI due to obligate anaerobes were studied., Results: A total of 19,739 blood cultures were collected, 2341 of which (11.9%) were positive. Anaerobic bottles were positive in 1528 (65.3%) of all positive BC but were positive alone (aerobic bottles negative) in 369 (15.8%). Overall 1081 episodes of bacteremia were identified, of which 209 (19.3%) had positive anaerobic bottles alone. The majority 126/209 (60.3%) were contaminants and 83 (39.7%) were BSI. BSI due to facultative anaerobes, obligate aerobes and obligate anaerobes were identified in 67 (80.7%), 3 (3.6%) and 13 (15.7%) of these 83 episodes, respectively. BSI due to obligate anaerobic bacteria were reported in 9 patients with gastro-intestinal disease, in 3 with febrile neutropenia and in 1 burned patient., Conclusions: Anaerobic bottles contributed to the diagnosis of a significant number of episodes of bacteremia. Isolated bacteria were mostly contaminants and non-obligate anaerobic pathogens. Rare BSI due to obligate anaerobes were reported mainly in patients with gastro-intestinal disorders and during febrile neutropenia.

Background: We report a rare case of anaerobic vertebral osteomyelitis associated with surgical tracheotomy which has never been reported to the best of our knowledge., Case Presentation: A healthy 39-year-old man was admitted to intensive care for a severe brain trauma injury where a surgical tracheotomy was performed. He was discharged to a rehabilitation centre after 54 days hospital stay. During rehabilitation, he developed progressive and febrile tetraplegia associated with cervical pain, requiring an intensive care readmission. A polymicrobial anaerobic bloodstream infection was revealed and magnetic resonance imaging diagnosed cervical vertebral osteomyelitis. Both the type of anaerobic micro-organisms found and the timing of the symptoms strongly suggest that the surgical tracheotomy was responsible for this rare case of cervical vertebral osteomyelitis. The patient was successfully treated by a prolonged antimicrobial therapy and by surgical laminectomy., Conclusions: Tracheotomy may generate anaerobic bacteraemia and related osteomyelitis in the specific setting of severe trauma patients. Clinicians should consider anaerobic vertebral osteomyelitis when they are confronted with a febrile tetraplegia after tracheotomy.

Introduction: Solithromycin is a novel fluoroketolide developed to treat pneumonia. But, few studies evaluating its antimicrobial activity against S. pneumoniae in a mixed-infection model with anaerobes are available, while community-acquired pneumonia can involve mixed-infection of Streptococcus pneumoniae and anaerobic bacteria. This study evaluated the antimicrobial activity of solithromycin against macrolide-resistant S. pneumoniae and anaerobic bacteria with a murine pneumonia mixed-infection model., Material and Methods: We evaluated antimicrobial activity of solithromycin (10 and 20 mg/kg) and levofloxacin (126 mg/kg) against S. pneumoniae with a three-point mutation in penicillin-binding protein and an ermB gene, and Parvimonas micra. Antimicrobial efficacy was calculated for each isolate as the change in bacterial count (Δlog 10  CFU/mL) obtained in the treated mice after 24 h compared with the count in the starting control animals., Results: The solithromycin and levofloxacin minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for S. pneumoniae were 0.03 and 0.5 μg/mL, respectively. The solithromycin and levofloxacin MICs for P. micra were 0.015 and 0.12 μg/mL, respectively. In a mixed-infection model, solithromycin showed significantly higher antimicrobial activity against S. pneumoniae than levofloxacin (solithromycin 20 mg/kg; -2.87 ± 1.33 log 10  CFU/mL vs. levofloxacin; -1.35 ± 0.37 log 10  CFU/mL, p = 0.0397). Similarly, solithromycin showed significantly higher antimicrobial activity against P. micra than levofloxacin (solithromycin 20 mg/kg; -2.78 ± 0.98 log 10  CFU/mL vs. levofloxacin; -1.57 ± 0.47 log 10  CFU/mL, p = 0.0400)., Discussion: Solithromycin showed higher antimicrobial activities against macrolide-resistant S. pneumoniae and P. micra than levofloxacin, even though they were coexisted in murine lung tissue. Our results suggest that solithromycin could be effective for pneumonia patients due to S. pneumoniae to reduce bacterial density in lung tissue., (Copyright © 2018 Japanese Society of Chemotherapy and The Japanese Association for Infectious Diseases. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Fibrin formation in infectious parapneumonic effusion (IPE) characterizes complicated parapneumonic effusion and is important for providing guidelines for the management of IPEs that require aggressive interventions. We aim to identify metabolic mechanisms associated with bacterial invasion, inflammatory cytokines, and biochemical markers in cases of fibrinous infectious pleural effusions in children with pneumonia. Pleural fluid metabolites were determined by 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Metabolites that contributed to the separation between fibrinous and nonfibrinous IPEs were identified using supervised partial least squares discriminant analysis ( Q 2 / R 2 = 0.84; P permutation < 0.01). IL-1β in the inflammatory cytokines and glucose in the biochemical markers were significantly correlated with 11 and 9 pleural fluid metabolites, respectively, and exhibited significant overlaps. Four metabolites, including glucose, lactic acid, 3-hydroxybutyric acid, and hypoxanthine, were significantly correlated with plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 in the fibrinolytic system enzymes. Metabolic pathway analysis revealed that anaerobic bacterial fermentation with increased lactic acid and butyric acid via glucose consumption and adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis with increased hypoxanthine appeared to be associated with fibrinous IPE. Our results demonstrate that an increase in lactic acid anaerobic fermentation and hypoxanthine accumulation under hypoxic conditions are associated with fibrin formation in IPE, representing advanced pleural inflammatory progress in children with pneumonia.

The introduction of biogas plants is a promising way to recycle organic wastes with renewable energy production and reducing greenhouse gas. Application of anaerobic digestate as a fertilizer reduces the consumption of chemical fertilizers. In this study, the survival of pathogenic bacteria and plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) in two full-scale biogas plants operated at mesophilic condition were investigated. Feedstock and anaerobic digestate samples were collected from biogas plants and bacteria load in samples were detected using standard dilution plate method. Pathogenic bacteria were reduced to not detected level through mesophilic digestion tank except for Campylobacter. However, it could be reduced by 98.7% through a sterilization tank. Bacillus was detected at 8.00 and 7.81 log 10  CFU/g dry matter in anaerobic digestates, and it was also resistant to sterilization tank. Bacillus spp. is considered to be the safe bacteria that hold remarkable abilities for promoting plant growth. The results showed that treatment at biogas plants is effective to reduce pathogenic bacteria in dairy manure, and sterilization could further reduce the sanitary risks of pathogenic bacteria relating to anaerobic digestate application. Anaerobic digestates could also be utilized as bio-fertilizer as the high load of plant growth promoting bacteria., (© 2018 Japanese Society of Animal Science.)

The number of patients with pneumonia has been increasing as the population ages, and most fatal pneumonia cases are the elderly with aspiration pneumonia. Although aspiration pneumonia leads to poor short- and long-term prognosis, there have been no practical ways to diagnose it precisely. Persistent subclinical aspiration without any subjective symptoms is problematic in clinical practice in patients with aspiration pneumonia, and physicians can only use aspiration risks such as brain infarction to diagnose aspiration pneumonia. Anaerobes have been believed to be major causative pathogens in aspiration pneumonia, based on data from the 1970's. In relation to these data, Marik insisted that there is a possible overestimation of anaerobes because 1) the sampling of microbiologic specimens was in the late phase in the course of the illness, especially frequently after developing complications such as abscesses, necrotizing pneumonia, or empyema thoracis; 2) the organisms recovered by percutaneous transtracheal aspiration (PTA) sampling could have been contaminated by the aspiration of oropharyngeal flora during the PTA procedure or colonized in the trachea; and 3) many of the patients had chronic alcoholism or were under general anesthesia. In addition, 4) oral care was not common in the 1970s, and 5) the patients in these reports were relatively young. Molecular biological approaches using the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene have recently been used, and have enabled us to detect more exact pathogens compared to conventional bacterial culture. Using the method with the detection of the 16S rRNA gene, we evaluated the bacterial phylotypes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in patients with aspiration pneumonia and found that oral streptococci were the most detected phylotypes (31.0%), while anaerobes were only 6.0%. Our results suggest that oral streptococci are important, and anaerobes may have been overestimated as causative pathogens in patients with aspiration pneumonia.

Inappropriate activation of intestinal innate immune receptors, such as toll-like receptors (TLRs), by pathogenic bacteria is linked to chronic inflammation. In contrast, a "tonic" level of TLR activation by commensal bacteria is required for intestinal homeostasis. A technical challenge when studying this activation in vitro is the co-culturing of oxygen-requiring mammalian cells with obligate anaerobic commensal bacteria. To overcome this, we used a novel apical anaerobic co-culture system to successfully adapt a TLR activation assay to be conducted in conditions optimised for both cell types. Live Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, an abundant obligate anaerobe of the colonic microbiota, induced higher TLR2 and TLR2/6 activation than the dead bacterium. This enhanced TLR induction by live F. prausnitzii, which until now has not previously been described, may contribute to maintenance of gastrointestinal homeostasis. This highlights the importance of using physiologically relevant co-culture systems to decipher the mechanisms of action of live obligate anaerobes., (© 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The aim of the study was to determine the influence of oil products on the development of cervical pathology in women living in oil and gas bearing areas. A retro and prospective study of 300 women was conducted, of which 150 studied - Temir district (main group) and 150 women of Khobdinsky district (control group). It was revealed that a complex of unfavorable environmental factors affecting the body of women living in the oil and gas bearing area leads to deterioration of gynecological health and development of the precancerous process of the cervix: in women of the main group, under constant exposure to harmful factors, significantly more often than in women in the control group reveals precancerous conditions of the cervix of varying severity -28 (18.6%) and 9 (6%). Vaginal contents in women of the main group are characterized by significant disturbances in the microbial flora, which is manifested by a significant increase in the number of strict anaerobic bacteria, 69-46% and 31-20.6%, as compared with the control group. The increased generation of anaerobes is accompanied by a decrease in the frequency of lactobacilli, in particular lactobacilli, which in turn can lead to a disruption of the normal epithelization of the cervix.

Introduction: Periodontal diseases are among the leading causes of premature tooth loss in adults, but the microbiota associated with this problem is established over time in childhood., Aim: This longitudinal study aimed to verify the occurrence of periodontal pathogens in the oral cavity of children aged six, twelve, eighteen and twenty-four months through PCR quantification, correlating them with the oral microbiota of their mothers., Study Design: Saliva and oral biofilm samples were collected from mothers and children by using sterilized paper points. Furthermore, a questionnaire was applied in all periods to evaluate hygiene and dietary habits., Results: A positive correlation was found between mother-child pairs in all periods. No correlation was observed between hygiene and dietary habits and occurrence of periodontal pathogens., Conclusion: Early inclusion of children in preventive and biofilm control programs could contribute to preventing acquisition of aggressive pathogens.

Microorganisms in nature rarely exist in a planktonic form, but in the form of biofilms. Biofilms have been identified as the cause of many chronic and persistent infections and have been implicated in the etiology of bacterial vaginosis (BV). Bacterial vaginosis is the most common form of vaginal infection in women of reproductive age. Similar to other biofilm infections, BV biofilms protect the BV-related bacteria against antibiotics and cause recurrent BV. In this review, an overview of BV-related bacteria, conceptual models and the stages involved in the polymicrobial BV biofilm formation will be discussed.

Short-chain fatty acids produced by anaerobic bacteria increase the risk of TB in HIV-infected, antiretroviral drug-treated people., (Copyright © 2017, American Association for the Advancement of Science.)

Microbial endocrinology is a relatively new research area that already encompasses the anaerobes. Stress hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine, can affect the growth of anaerobic bacteria such as Fusobacterium nucleatum, Prevotella spp., Porhyromonas spp., Tanerella forsythia and Propionibacterium acnes and can increase virulence gene expression, iron acquisition and many virulence factors of some anaerobic species such as Clostridium perfringens, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Brachyspira pilosicoli. Epinephrine and norepinephrine effects can lead to a growth increase or decrease, or no effect on the growth of the anaerobes. The effects are species-specific and perhaps strain-specific. Discrepancies in the results of some studies can be due to the different methods and media used, catecholamine concentrations, measurement techniques and the low number of strains tested. Biological effects of the stress hormones on the anaerobes may range from halitosis and a worsening of periodontal diseases to tissue damages and atherosclerotic plaque ruptures. Optimizations of the research methods and a detailed assessment of the catecholamine effects in conditions mimicking those in affected organs and tissues, as well as the effects on the quorum sensing and virulence of the anaerobes and the full spectrum of biological consequences of the effects are interesting topics for further evaluation., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Epidemiological studies have shown a link between periodontitis and atherosclerosis. Hence the present study was chosen to assess the presence of eight anaerobic periodontal pathogens and their virulence genes in subgingival plaque (SGP) and atheromatous plaque (AP) of patients with Ischaemic heart disease., Methods: SGP and AP collected from 65 Ischaemic heart disease patients were screened for the presence of periodontal bacterial pathogens by Polymerase chain reaction. The samples positive for Porphyromonas gingivalis, Treponema denticola and Tannerella forsythia were screened for virulence genes. Chronic periodontitis patients (ChP) without any systemic disease (n = 59) and healthy subjects free of both periodontitis and systemic disease were included as control groups (n = 100)., Results and Discussion: Statistical significance was observed for the prevalence of 16S rRNA of P. gingivalis, T. forsythia, T. denticola and P. nigrescens both in SGP and AP. Nine different periodontal bacterial co-occurrences were observed in SGP and AP of Ischaemic heart disease patients. Besides, the prevalence of these nine different bacterial co-occurrence was high in SGP OF Ischaemic heart disease patients compared to ChP without systemic disease. Among the nine different bacterial co-occurrence, only four were observed in SGP of ChP without systemic disease in spite of high prevalence of these anaerobic bacterial species. While, bacterial co-occurrences was completely absent among healthy subjects. Significant odds and risk ratio to atherosclerosis were observed for P. gingivalis, T. forsythia, T. denticola and P. nigrescens. Among the virulence genes, significance to atherosclerosis was observed for P. gingivalis type II fimA and T. forsythia bspA., Conclusion: The results of this study strongly correlate periodontal bacterial co-occurrence and periodontal bacterial adhesion factor to atherosclerosis., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Purpose . Low-virulence anaerobic bacteria, especially the Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) , have been thought to be a new pathogeny for a series of disc diseases. However, until now, there has been no histological evidence to confirm this link. The purpose of this study was to confirm the presence of P. acnes in nonpyogenic intervertebral discs via histological observation. Method . Degenerated intervertebral discs were harvested from 76 patients with low back pain and/or sciatica but without any symptoms of discitis or spondylodiscitis. The samples were cultured under anaerobic conditions and then examined using 16S rDNA PCR to screen for P. acnes . Samples found to be positive for P. acnes were stained with hematoxylin-eosin (HE) and modified Brown-Brenn staining and observed under a microscope. Results . Here, 16 intervertebral discs were found to be positive for P. acnes via 16S rDNA PCR and the prevalence was 21.05% (16/76). Among them, 7 samples had visible microbes stained with HE and modified Brown-Brenn staining. Morphological examination showed the bacteria to be Gram-positive and rod-shaped, so they were considered P. acnes . Conclusion . P. acnes is capable of colonizing some degenerated intervertebral discs without causing discitis, and its presence could be further confirmed by histological evidence. Targeting these bacteria may be a promising therapy method for some disc diseases.

Background & Objectives: Although polymicrobial infections involving both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria are very common in diabetic foot ulcers, in many centres of developing countries, anaerobes are rarely isolated due to technical difficulties. This can be overcome by using a new simple, innovative technique of a combination of candle combustion and use of acidified copper-coated steel wool, as reported here., Methods: In-house developed method was used in a prospective clinico-microbiological study for anaerobes from randomly selected 43 patients with diabetic foot ulcers along with conventional method of anaerobic culture in GasPak system and aerobic culture by standard laboratory procedures. For primary isolation of anaerobes, Brucella blood agar supplemented with hemin (5 μg/ml) and menadione (1 μg/ml) was used. Antibiotic sensitivity tests were performed by the standard disc diffusion method for aerobes and E-test method for anaerobes., Results: All the 43 samples were culture positive, of which aerobic Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) predominated, followed by Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus and diphtheroids. Anaerobes isolated from 21 samples were Peptostreptococcus, Bacteroides, Porphyromonas, Veillonella spp. and Clostridium perfringens by both GasPak and in-house developed and modified candle jar techniques. Imipenem and metronidazole were most sensitive while clindamycin, penicillin and cefoxitin were least sensitive drugs for anaerobes. Aerobic GNB were found to be multidrug resistant, especially to penicillin and cephalosporins. The most sensitive drug was piperacillin-tazobactam., Interpretation & Conclusions: For isolation of anaerobes from clinical specimens such as diabetic foot ulcers, modified candle jar technique was found to be as reliable as GasPak system. This modified technique needs to be tested for many other clinical materials which are not yet evaluated.

Twenty six anaerobes were recovered from 150 deep-seated abscess samples cultured by the proposed two-step combustion-modified candle-jar system and Anoxomat. The degree of growth and colony size were similar in both systems, except for Clostridium difficile. The modified candle-jar system was found to be a sensitive and cost-effective alternative that might be used in resource-limited settings.

In order to identify current trends in anaerobic bacteraemia, a 10-year retrospective study was performed in the University Hospital Brussel, Belgium. All clinically relevant bacteraemia detected from 2004 until 2013 were included. Medical records were reviewed in an attempt to define clinical parameters that might be associated with the occurrence of anaerobic bacteraemia. 437 of the isolated organisms causing anaerobic bacteraemia were thawed, subcultured and reanalyzed using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF). There were an average of 33 cases of anaerobic bacteraemia per year during 2004-2008 compared to an average of 27 cases per year during 2009-2013 (P = 0.017), corresponding to a decrease by 19% between the first and the latter period. Also, the total number of cases of anaerobic bacteraemia per 100,000 patient days decreased from 17.3 in the period from 2004 to 2008 to 13.7 in the period 2009 to 2013 (P = 0.023). Additionally, the mean incidence of anaerobic bacteraemia decreased during the study period (1.27/1000 patients in 2004 vs. 0.94/1000 patients in 2013; P = 0.008). In contrast, the proportion of isolated anaerobic bacteraemia compared to the number of all bacteraemia remained stable at 5%. Bacteroides spp. and Parabacteroides spp. accounted for 47.1% of the anaerobes, followed by 14.4% Clostridium spp., 12.6% non-spore-forming Gram-positive rods, 10.5% anaerobic cocci, 8.2% Prevotella spp. and other Gram-negative rods and 7.1% Fusobacterium spp. The lower gastrointestinal tract (47%) and wound infections (10%) were the two most frequent sources for bacteraemia, with the origin remaining unknown in 62 cases (21%). The overall mortality rate was 14%. Further studies focusing on the antimicrobial susceptibility and demographic background of patients are needed to further objectify the currently observed trends., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Late stage solid tumors cause significant cancer mortality rates worldwide and effective therapy remains a big challenge. Cancer therapeutic vaccines elicit tumor specific T cells that kill tumor cells yet often fail to result in tumor destruction because of the limited T cell response and the local immune-suppressive environment. Blocking interleukin 10 (IL-10) signaling at the time of therapeutic vaccination elicits much stronger T cell responses than vaccination without IL-10 blocking. Anaerobic oncolytic bacteria target hypoxic regions of the late stage tumor tissues which not only stops tumor growth but also provides a pro-inflammatory environment that may increase the effectiveness of a therapeutic vaccine by recruiting more effector T cells to tumor site. In this review, we argue that combining both bacterial and vaccine therapies may improve the efficiency of late stage cancer management.

Anaerobes are the most predominant components of the normal human skin and mucous membranes bacterial flora, and are a frequent cause of endogenous bacterial infections. Anaerobic infections can occur in all body locations: the central nervous system, oral cavity, head and neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis, skin, and soft tissues. Treatment of anaerobic infection is complicated by their slow growth in culture, by their polymicrobial nature and by their growing resistance to antimicrobials. Antimicrobial therapy is frequently the only form of therapy needed, whereas in others it is an important adjunct to drainage and surgery. Because anaerobes generally are isolated mixed with aerobes, the antimicrobial chosen should provide for adequate coverage of both. The most effective antimicrobials against anaerobes are: metronidazole, the carbapenems (imipenem, meropenem, doripenem, ertapenem), chloramphenicol, the combinations of a penicillin and a beta-lactamase inhibitors (ampicillin or ticarcillin plus clavulanate, amoxicillin plus sulbactam, piperacillin plus tazobactam), tigecycline, cefoxitin and clindamycin., (Copyright © 2015 Japanese Society of Chemotherapy and The Japanese Association for Infectious Diseases. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Filifactor alocis, a previously unrecognized Gram-positive anaerobic rod, is now considered a new emerging pathogen that may play a significant role in periodontal disease. F. alocis' unique characteristics and variations at the molecular level that may be responsible for the functional changes required to mediate the pathogenic process are discussed., (Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.)

Chronic pulmonary sepsis is the predominant cause of morbidity for patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) and non-CF bronchiectasis. Previously it was thought that respiratory infection in these patients was mostly limited to a very small number of typical pathogens; however, in recent years there have been increasing reports of infection with other emerging potential pathogens including Burkholderia, Stenotrophomonas, Achromobacter, Ralstonia, Pandoraea, nontuberculous mycobacteria, and fungal species. Furthermore, culture-independent methodologies have established that the lungs of patients with CF and non-CF bronchiectasis comprise mixed microbiological communities of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, fungal and viral species, collectively referred to as the lung microbiome. This article addresses the clinical relevance of emerging pathogens and the lung microbiome in CF and non-CF bronchiectasis., (Thieme Medical Publishers 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.)

The evaluation of content of DNA of lactobaccilli and particular types of aerobic anaerobic opportunistic bacteria in sampling of scrapes from urogenital tract offemale patients of the network laboratory INVITRO was implemented. The technique of polymerase chain reaction in real-time was implemented. It is demonstrated that decreasing of content of lactobaccilli in total bacterial mass isfollowed by increasing of occurrence, concentration and relative content of all types of opportunistic pathogens except ureaplasmna. These changes are expressed in different degree for different types of opportunistic pathogens. The increasing of varieties of types of microflora of urogenital tract under decreasing of content of lactobaccilli is noted.

Fusobacterium nucleatum is an anaerobic oral commensal and a periodontal pathogen associated with a wide spectrum of human diseases. This article reviews its implication in adverse pregnancy outcomes (chorioamnionitis, preterm birth, stillbirth, neonatal sepsis, preeclampsia), GI disorders (colorectal cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, appendicitis), cardiovascular disease, rheumatoid arthritis, respiratory tract infections, Lemierre's syndrome and Alzheimer's disease. The virulence mechanisms involved in the diseases are discussed, with emphasis on its colonization, systemic dissemination, and induction of host inflammatory and tumorigenic responses. The FadA adhesin/invasin conserved in F. nucleatum is a key virulence factor and a potential diagnostic marker for F. nucleatum-associated diseases., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Aim: Study microflora of urine, ejaculate, urethra scrape in normal state and infertility., Materials and Methods: 2 groups of men were examined: I (28)--control, conditionally healthy men (20 - 25 years of age), II (26)--infertile patients (25 - 35 years of age). Middle portion of morning urine, ejaculate, urethra scrape were studied in group I, in II--ejaculate. Bacteriologic study of urine and ejaculate was carried out in an extended kit of nutrient media (HiMedia) for facultative- anaerobic (FAB) and non-clostridia anaerobic bacteria (NAB). Urethra scrape and ejaculate were studied by PCR in group I., Results: In urethra scrape and ejaculate a wide spectrum of FAB and NAB was detected in group I. Corynebacterium spp. and coagulase-negative staphylococci (67.9% each) were the dominant cluster of FAB. Eubacterium spp.--in NAB. Bacteriologic study of ejaculate corresponded in PCR with similar results of dominating bacteria. Among FAB the same clusters dominated during bacteriologic study of ejaculate from group II patients, among NAB--Propionibacterium spp., Peptococcus spp. and Peptostreptococcus spp. Quantitative characteristics of ejaculate of group I and II differed insignificantly., Conclusion: The frequency of detection of certain genera of FAB and NAB was significantly higher in patients with infertility than in conditionally healthy men, however quantitative parameters of the isolated microorganisms practically did not differ between groups.

As our knowledge of host-microbial interactions within the oral cavity increases, future treatments are likely to be more targeted. For example, efforts to target a single species or key virulence factors that they produce, while maintaining the natural balance of the resident oral microbiota that acts to modulate the host immune response would be an advantage. Targeted approaches may be directed at the black-pigmented anaerobes, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Prevotella intermedia, associated with periodontitis. Such pigments provide an opportunity for targeted phototherapy with high-intensity monochromatic light. Functional inhibition approaches, including the use of enzyme inhibitors, are also being explored to control periodontitis. More general disruption of dental plaque through the use of enzymes and detergents, alone and in combination, shows much promise. The use of probiotics and prebiotics to improve gastrointestinal health has now led to an interest in using these approaches to control oral disease. More recently the potential of antimicrobial peptides and nanotechnology, through the application of nanoparticles with biocidal, anti-adhesive and delivery capabilities, has been explored. The aim of this review is to consider the current status as regards non-conventional treatment approaches for oral infections with particular emphasis on the plaque-related diseases.

The vast microbiota in the human body is dominated by anaerobic gram-negative rods. The five recent publications reviewed here demonstrate important roles for Bacteroides species and other anaerobic bacteria both in the production of illness and the maintenance of health., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Among the Gram-positive anaerobic bacteria associated with clinical infections, the Gram-positive anaerobic cocci (GPAC) are the most prominent and account for approximately 25-30% of all isolated anaerobic bacteria from clinical specimens. Still, routine culture and identification of these slowly growing anaerobes to the species level has been limited in the diagnostic laboratory, mainly due to the requirement of prolonged incubation times and time-consuming phenotypic identification. In addition, GPAC are mostly isolated from polymicrobial infections with known pathogens and therefore their relevance has often been overlooked. However, through improvements in diagnostic and in particular molecular techniques, the isolation and identification of individual genera and species of GPAC associated with specific infections have been enhanced. Furthermore, the taxonomy of GPAC has undergone considerable changes over the years, mainly due to the development of molecular identification methods. Existing species have been renamed and novel species have been added, resulting in changes of the nomenclature. As the abundance and significance of GPAC in clinical infections grow, knowledge of virulence factors and antibiotic resistance patterns of different species becomes more important. The present review describes recent advances of GPAC and what is known of the biology and pathogenic effects of Anaerococcus, Finegoldia, Parvimonas, Peptoniphilus and Peptostreptococcus, the most important GPAC genera isolated from human infections., (© 2012 Federation of European Microbiological Societies. Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The aim of the investigation was to determine the frequency of detection of anaerobic microorganisms in the maxillary sinuses of patients with different forms of chronic maxillary sinusitis. 36 patients were examined. Fence clinical material was carried out from the walls of the maxillary sinus with transport tubes Ames during "Operation maxillary sinusotomy." In order to create anaerobic conditions, we used a set of equipment and supplies (manufacturer bio Mérieux, France) of a company bio Merieux in Ukraine--"Company Diaveritas." It was found that the presence of anaerobic infection is not typical for chronic sinusitis of the odontogenic origin. A wider range of pathogens (60%), observed in chronic odontogenic sinusitis with the presence of a foreign body in the lumen of the sinus. In the mixed associations set aside 50% of anaerobic flora.

The article deals with the study of characteristics of biocenosis of urogenital tract in women of reproductive age with using of "Femoflor" test. The scrapings of posterolateral wall of vagina were analyzed using the technique of real-time polymerase chain reaction using the reagents "Femoflor". The complex evaluation of urogenital biota identified three main types of biocenosis of vagina: type I--normocenosis (n = 50 or 11.5%): type II--mild dysbiosis (n = 88 or 21%); type III--marked dysbiosis (n = 133 or 30.6%). In the structure of alterations of biocenosis of urogenital tract the main role play the anaerobic bacteria with involvement of candida, ureoplasma and mcoplasma.

Identification of some bacteria of the oral microbiota in humans including opportunistic pathogens capable of causing infections of various locations is a challenging problem for dentistry. Lack of knowledge on oral microbiota is the result of the absence of appropriate culture technique for isolation of pure cultures of those bacteria. The paper presents the study on mixed oral microbial biofilms with isolation and identification of insufficiently explored or still unknown aerobic opportunistic bacteria.

Aims: Nosocomial infections cause significant morbidity and mortality in cancer patients. As a result of their debilitated immune system, cancer patients are likely candidates for colonization with anaerobes. We sought to compare the distribution of nosocomial infections in neutropenic and non-neutropenic cancer patients and to calculate the associated mortality rates., Material & Methods: This is the first study to demonstrate a complete microbial spectrum of anaerobes in various infection sites in hospitalized cancer patients., Results: Frequencies of bloodstream infections (BSI), respiratory tract infections (RTI), and GI tract infections (GITI) were significantly higher in neutropenic cancer patients (p < 0.01). Conversely, urinary tract infection (UTI) and skin infection (SI) rates were significantly higher in non-neutropenic cancer patients (p < 0.01). Mortalities attributed to BSI, UTI, RTI, SI, and GITI occured at the respective percentage frequencies of 12.5%, 11.5%, 10.4%, 7.7% and 4.9%. Anaerobes constituted 4.7% of total isolates, and were recovered from SI (66.3%) and GITI (33.6%), but not respiratory tract, urine, or blood. Most anaerobes (79.2%) were isolated from solid-tumor patients. The most common infection in cancer patients was RTI (55.8%), mainly in leukemic patients, followed by SI (18%), only in solid-tumor patients, GITI (9.7%), BSI (9.4%), and UTI (7.1%). The most frequent isolates of Fusobacterium necrophorum (32.7%) and Eubacterium lentum (23.8%) were mostly recovered from solid-tumor patients. These were followed by Clostridium perfringens (11.9%), Clostridium difficile (10.9%), Eubacterium limosum (5.9%), and Veillonella parvula (5%)., Conclusion: Control measures are needed to minimize risks of nosocomial infection outbreaks by anaerobes. Continuous monitoring of the presence of anaerobes in various infection sites in hospitalized cancer patients is needed in order to be able to provide the best supportive care for cancer patients.

Experimental studies indicate that segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) can recapitulate fundamental immune responses, particularly in reference to Th 17 and regulatory T-cell activity. The recent description of whole genomic DNA sequences of mouse and rat SFBs and the comparison between these sequences opens new important perspectives. In particular this knowledge allows to perform quali-quantitative studies in human beings regarding these yet unculturable anaerobic bacteria. The comparative analysis of rat and mouse SFB 16S rRNA sequences suggests the existence of highly conserved regions that could represent SFB-specific molecular targets potentially useful to develop PCR probes for study SFB in humans. These molecular tools may be of inestimable value to evaluate the possible role played by SFB in the immune system physiology, as well as its potential involvement in human chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.

Background and Objective: Whilst certain bacteria have long been known to secrete extracellular deoxyribonuclease (DNase), the purpose in microbial physiology was unclear. Recently, however, this enzyme has been demonstrated to confer enhanced virulence, enabling bacteria to evade the host's immune defence of extruded DNA/chromatin filaments, termed neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). As NETs have recently been identified in infected periodontal tissue, the aim of this study was to screen periodontal bacteria for extracellular DNase activity., Material and Methods: To determine whether DNase activity was membrane bound or secreted, 34 periodontal bacteria were cultured in broth and on agar plates. Pelleted bacteria and supernatants from broth cultures were analysed for their ability to degrade DNA, with relative activity levels determined using an agarose gel electrophoresis assay. Following culture on DNA-supplemented agar, expression was determined by the presence of a zone of hydrolysis and DNase activity related to colony size., Results: Twenty-seven bacteria, including red and orange complex members Porphyromonas gingivalis, Tannerella forsythia, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Parvimonas micra, Prevotella intermedia, Streptococcus constellatus, Campylobacter rectus and Prevotella nigrescens, were observed to express extracellular DNase activity. Differences in DNase activity were noted, however, when bacteria were assayed in different culture states. Analysis of the activity of secreted DNase from bacterial broth cultures confirmed their ability to degrade NETs., Conclusion: The present study demonstrates, for the first time, that DNase activity is a relatively common property of bacteria associated with advanced periodontal disease. Further work is required to determine the importance of this bacterial DNase activity in the pathogenesis of periodontitis., (© 2011 John Wiley & Sons A/S.)

Using bacteria as therapeutic agents against solid tumors is emerging as an area of great potential in the treatment of cancer. Obligate and facultative anaerobic bacteria have been shown to infiltrate the hypoxic regions of solid tumors, thereby reducing their growth rate or causing regression. However, a major challenge for bacterial therapy of cancer with facultative anaerobes is avoiding damage to normal tissues. Consequently the virulence of bacteria must be adequately attenuated for therapeutic use. By placing an essential gene under a hypoxia conditioned promoter, SalmonellaTyphimurium strain SL7207 was engineered to survive only in anaerobic conditions (strain YB1) without otherwise affecting its functions. In breast tumor bearing nude mice, YB1 grew within the tumor, retarding its growth, while being rapidly eliminated from normal tissues. YB1 provides a safe bacterial vector for anti-tumor therapies without compromising the other functions or tumor fitness of the bacterium as attenuation methods normally do.

Filifactor alocis, a Gram-positive anaerobic rod, is one of the most abundant bacteria identified in the periodontal pockets of periodontitis patients. There is a gap in our understanding of its pathogenicity and ability to interact with other periodontal pathogens. To evaluate the virulence potential of F. alocis and its ability to interact with Porphyromonas gingivalis W83, several clinical isolates of F. alocis were characterized. F. alocis showed nongingipain protease and sialidase activities. In silico analysis revealed the molecular relatedness of several virulence factors from F. alocis and P. gingivalis. In contrast to P. gingivalis, F. alocis was relatively resistant to oxidative stress and its growth was stimulated under those conditions. Biofilm formation was significantly increased in coculture. There was an increase in adherence and invasion of epithelial cells in coculture compared with P. gingivalis or F. alocis monocultures. In those epithelial cells, endocytic vesicle-mediated internalization was observed only during coculture. The F. alocis clinical isolate had an increased invasive capacity in coculture with P. gingivalis compared to the ATCC 35896 strain. In addition, there was variation in the proteomes of the clinical isolates compared to the ATCC 35896 strain. Hypothetical proteins and those known to be important virulence factors in other bacteria were identified. These results indicate that F. alocis has virulence properties that may enhance its ability to survive and persist in the periodontal pocket and may play an important role in infection-induced periodontal disease.