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This research aims to find out (1). Variety of English that the students use most in Cokroaminoto University of Palopo (2). The students' perceptions toward American and British English. It is a descriptive research. The population of this research is the seventh students of Cokroaminoto Palopo which consists of three parallel classes. The total population is 120 students. Cluster random sampling technique is used to determine the sample. This research took one class as sample. The result of this research shows the students use American English variety in vocabulary even though they think that they mix both varieties of English and they have ever exposed both of varieties, the students prefer American English in teaching learning process as they think that it easy to be pronounced and understood and it is frequently used by them. Other result shows that the students mostly notice the differences between American and British English on pronunciation. But minority of the students still think that British English is cool, more formal, general variety of English and they like it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses insubordinate if -clauses in spoken British English (e.g. If you'll just come next door ) as independent from full conditional clauses and indirect interrogative complement clauses, using data extracted from the British component of the International Corpus of English and the British National Corpus . The study shows that such constructions occur most frequently in conversation and that they express a wide variety of functions in discourse. The polyfunctionality of insubordinate if -clauses is presented together with other, alternative grammatical patterns that may express the same function in discourse. The analysis also reveals a correlation between the discourse function of the clause and the type of verb (modal or lexical) used in it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The expressive lexical skills of 53 Polish bilinguals aged 24–36 months living in the UK and Ireland were assessed using Polish and British English adaptations of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories. Polish vocabulary scores were compared to those of 53 Polish monolinguals matched for age, gender and parental education. The bilinguals were born to two Polish parents and mostly lived outside Poland since birth. Results showed substantial differences in Total Conceptual Vocabulary and single-language vocabulary scores between the groups. However, the groups did not differ on Total Vocabulary measures. In the bilingual sample, there were significant correlations between children’s frequency of language use and their vocabulary scores in the same language. A negative correlation between children’s frequency of English use and their Polish vocabulary scores was found. A complex pattern of factors relating to children’s low performance in Polish emerged. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that low birth weight, parental concern about language, maternal educational level as well as maternal frequency of Polish and English use contributed to explaining children’s Polish vocabulary scores. Overall, results indicated the need for early additional support of the first language (L1) if long-term balanced bilingualism is to be attained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article argues that Chaucer's imaginative depiction of the topographical and cultural otherness of Brittany and the fraught triangular relationship of the main characters in the Franklin's Tale is influenced by his awareness of Brittany's entanglements with England and France in the Hundred Years' War. Fourteenth-century Brittany was a strategic border region, differentiated from other French territories by its Brythonic language and culture, yet inextricably bound to England by ties of kinship, fealty, and occupation extending back to the Norman Conquest. The Franklin's Tale explicitly links each of its main characters with one of the three polities involved in this conflict, associating Dorigen most strongly with Brittany itself. The love story between Dorigen and Arveragus and the challenge posed to it by Aurelius play out in an emphatically Breton colonial setting, where the erotics of sexual conquest become conflated with territorial and political conquest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the use of uh and um - referred to jointly as UHM - in 14 conversations totaling c. 62,350 words from the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English. UHM was much less frequent than in British English with 7.5 vs. 14.5 instances per million words in the British National Corpus. However, as in British English the frequency of UHM was closely correlated to extra-linguistic context. Conversations in non-private environments (such as offices and classrooms) had higher frequencies than those taking place in private spaces, mostly homes. Time required for planning, especially when difficult subjects were discussed, appeared to be an important explanatory factor. It is clear that UHM cannot be dismissed as mere hesitation or disfluency; it functions as a pragmatic marker on a par with well, you know, and I mean, sharing some of the functions of these in discourse. Although the role of sociolinguistic factors was less clear, the tendencies for older speakers and educated speakers to use UHM more frequently than younger and less educated ones paralleled British usage, but contrary to British usage, there were no gender differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Iberica is the property of Asociacion Europea de Lenguas para Fines Especificos and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

An introduction is presented in which the editor discusses Breton language.

La société bretonne de la fin du xxe et du début du xxie siècle se caractérise, notamment, par un fort attachement à l'identité bretonne, volontiers mise en avant par les acteurs politiques, économiques et médiatiques. La langue bretonne, qui constitue l'un des symboles essentiels de cette identité, fait l'objet de toutes les attentions; cependant, sa pratique continue à s'effondrer. Dans ces conditions, les relations entre langue et identité sont cruciales: la langue a-t-elle été préemptée par un petit groupe de néolocuteurs volontaristes? Et les locuteurs natifs, quant à eux, sont-ils indifférents à l'identité bretonne ? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

L'histoire de la pratique du breton est celle d'un recul lent et continu du haut vers le bas de la pyramide sociale. Désormais langue du monde rural, le breton cède la place au français au cours du vingtième siècle. Jusqu'à la Première Guerre mondiale les couches les plus instruites ont utilisé un breton distingué - en plus du français - tandis que l'Église pratiquait elle aussi une variété distinguée dite « breton de curé ». Les deux ont été abandonnées, et dès 1950 ont seuls subsistés les parlers vernaculaires, les badumes. L'ancienne diglossie breton / français a disparu et la connaissance du français s'est universalisée. Dès la fin du dix-neuvième siècle des intellectuels, pour la plupart de langue première française, ont élaboré une nouvelle variété de langue, le « néo-breton ». Entre les badumes et ce néo-breton a toujours existé une forme intermédiaire, pratiquée par des bretonnants proches du monde rural et respectueux de la langue héritée. L'urbanisation culturelle du monde rural semblait condamner cette forme intermédiaire à décliner au même rythme que les badumes : mais le développement de la radio et de la télévision, puis l'expansion de l'enseignement bilingue, ont fait de ce breton un trait d'union avec les badumes du passé. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of language endangerment and revitalization, many researchers look to the language of traditional speakers as the standard for 'authentic' language. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, this article examines the challenges of researching a traditional variety of an endangered language and of evaluating speaker fluency among native speakers of a language that has manyvarieties and no traditional standard. As shown in this study, speakers display a tendency to assess their own Breton as inferior, uneducated, and imperfect; paradoxically, these same speakers also evaluate literary or academic varieties and the neo-Breton of the school-learned speakers of the language as suspect. The speakers' expressed self-evaluations of fluency demonstrate the problematic nature of identifying an authentic, fluent speaker in a society where, for generations, a language has been alternately ignored and denigrated by the government and the public education system. In exploring these issues, this article sheds light upon the sociolinguistic impact of language contact in endangered language contexts, and the resultant real-world challenges for endangered language communities looking to identify and promote confident speakers, and for researchers relying upon self- and other-reported evaluations of fluent speakerhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

'Revitalized' or 'neo' Breton as a contested variety exhibits a number of features of a language which has been revitalized from the 'bottom-up', including a lack of acceptance of certain neologisms, particularly those coined (it is claimed) from a 'purist' or 'nationalist' provenance. Here, we explore how these neologisms are contested through the prism of language ideology and how competing claims to Breton 'authenticity' are being played out in a variety of arenas, including internet fora. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

En Bretagne, la langue bretonne bénéficie aujourd'hui d'une nouvelle visibilité : elle a accès à de nouveaux domaines tels que l'éducation, les médias audiovisuels ou internet. On observe en même temps, d'une part une baisse continue du taux et du nombre de locuteurs, d'autre part une régression significative des usages de la langue par les locuteurs eux-mêmes. La situation actuelle de la langue bretonne est la résultante d'une évolution entamée un siècle plus tôt et qu'on ne peut comprendre sans faire appel à la diachronie. Deux enquêtes majeures réalisées l'une en 1902 et l'autre en 1946, puis un sondage en 2007 constituent des repères essentiels pour une sociolinguistique historique du breton. Au tout début du XXe siècle, le monolinguisme de langue bretonne concerne toujours la moitié de la population. Les années décisives se situent vers 1950, au moment où les parents bretonnants choisissent d'élever leurs enfants en français. La transmission intergénérationnelle n'étant plus assurée, la langue bretonne a perdu 85 % de ses locuteurs en une soixantaine d'années. Mais si le XXe siècle a été celui de toutes les mutations, c'est aussi en raison d'une double inversion des représentations. Un tel processus est-il réversible ? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A l'issue d'une large désaffection au cours du XXe siècle, la langue bretonne se parle aujourd'hui selon deux grandes modalités, opposables tant par leurs caractéristiques internes que par leur assise sociolinguistique: d'une part, le breton dit « populaire », d'autre part le « néo-breton ». Pour comprendre cette situation présente, il convient de mettre en perspective trois grandes ruptures qui ont affecté la transmission de la langue. La troisième de ces ruptures est actuellement en cours et voit la substitution du néo-breton, d'origine livresque, au breton populaire, de tradition immémoriale. Ce processus entraîne des réactions et des discours passionnels, dont il convient pourtant de sortir. Une juste analyse de la situation commande en fait de redéfinir les termes de la discussion: le 'breton populaire' sera ainsi mieux appréhendé en tant qu'endolecte; tandis que le générique « néo-breton » doit être compris comme recouvrant une somme de réalités diverses, qui ne constituent pas forcément toutes une cassure par rapport à la langue originelle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The last twenty years have seen a remarkable change in public and institutional support for Breton language promotion. Language activists who had previously resisted and opposed the actions of the French state are now to the fore in designing and implementing institutional language policies to promote Breton, particularly in schooling, adult learning, media, arts and the public space. Spolsky (2003) usefully distinguishes between policies aimed at 'revitalization' in home language acquisition and usage (notably in educational policy) and 'regeneration' in activities in wider society. This paper concentrates on the regeneration efforts exemplified by the Ya d'ar Brezhoneg program for local language plans, drawing on qualitative interview data from Breton language professionals and employees of Ofis ar Brezhoneg, the Region's Breton language promotion agency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many strategies and initiatives aimed at the promotion of the practice of Breton focus on the language as the key unit of inquiry. In this way language activism frequently involves introducing initiatives aimed at doing something to, or for, Breton. This article makes the argument that, although language-centred initiatives have many strengths, they often struggle to deal productively and effectively with the issue of language heterogeneity and diversity. In particular, when these initiatives focus on the development and promotion of a prestigious standard, they often have difficulty mobilizing an important group of Breton speakers: Bretons who use and identify more closely with local, vernacular varieties of the language. As an alternative to this paradigm, this article suggests reframing the focus of language initiatives by making the Breton language community, rather than the Breton language, the key unit of inquiry. In doing so it develops a view of Breton as a situated social practice, used by a group of people in related but diverse ways, rather than as a fixed and normative code. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces the emerging new variety of Korean English to what may be a relatively new audience. Shim (1999) suggested that Korean English was codified in the form of school textbooks by the end of the 1980s; now, more than 20 years later it would be reasonable to expect a number of Koreanised forms to be detectable in contemporary Korean spoken English but, to my knowledge, there has never been a corpus-driven study that explores this variety. With a theoretical backdrop based on a new theory of language, Hoey's theory of Lexical Priming (Hoey, 2005), I explore three high frequency lexical strings, `do you know~ `but you know' and `and you know' and their variation in two corpora of Korean English and two of British English. The results suggest that Korean speakers use certain strings as extended connectives to 'buy' extra processing time and the study raises interesting questions about the relationship between string form and meaning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reviews the book "Brythonic Celtic -- Britannisches Keltisch: From Medieval British to Modern Breton" by Elmar Ternes.

Copyright of Tijdschrift voor Skandinavistiek is the property of Tijdschrift voor Skandinavistiek and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper aims to explore how discourse functions and prosodic realisations can be related through an analysis of appositive relative clauses (ARCs) in English. Based on a corpus study of spoken British English through the use of the Aix-Marsec and ICE-GB corpora, our aim is twofold: 1) to establish the singularity of ARCs within the global category of parentheticals; and 2) to show that, for one specific syntactic structure, in this instance ARCs, differences in discourse functions correspond not only to differences in morphosyntactic and semantic characteristics as proposed in Loock's (La Proposition relative appositive en anglais contemporain à l'écrit et à l'oral: fonctions discursives et structures concurrentes, 2005, Journal of Pragmatics 39: 336-362, 2007, Appositive relative clauses in English: discourse functions and competing structures, John Benjamins, 2010) threefold discourse typology, but also to differences in prosodic features (regarding tonal, temporal and intensity aspects). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Contact between Latin and British, the Brittonic Celtic language, in Roman and post-Roman Britain has received considerable attention in the last few years as part of a more general discussion of linguistic contact phenomena in early Britain. Much of the discussion has focused on phonological aspects, although morphological features have sometimes been invoked without discussion. The aim of this paper is to consider some of the morphological features which have been claimed to reflect Latin influence on Brittonic Celtic languages, such as loss of a case system, loss of the neuter gender, the development of compound prepositions, and the acquisition of a pluperfect tense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lightfoot (2002) argues that syntactic reconstruction is rendered impossible by the lack of any analogue in syntax to the traditional notion of the phonological ‘correspondence set’ of the Comparative Method and by the radical discontinuity caused by reanalysis between successive grammars. Alice Harris and Lyle Campbell, in various works, have defended the notion of ‘syntactic pattern’ as the analogue of the correspondence set, arguing that patterns can be compared across languages, with innovations being stripped away to reveal aspects of the protolanguage. In this article, I argue that syntactic reconstruction can be carried out while maintaining and indeed utilizing core notions in generative approaches to syntactic change such as the central role of reanalysis and child language acquisition and the distinction between the abstract grammatical system and the surface output of that system. Reanalysis itself is constrained by the fact that both pre- and post-reanalysis grammars must be acquirable on the basis of the same primary linguistic data. This imposes limits on the possible hypotheses that can be entertained (‘local directionality’) even in the absence of any crosslinguistic generalizations about patterns of change (‘universal directionality’). This approach is then applied to aspects of the syntax of free relative clauses and negation in the early Brythonic Celtic languages (Welsh, Breton and Cornish), showing that non-trivial reconstructions can be achieved even where the daughter languages manifest significant differences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is concerned with the various uses of articles in certain non-standard dialects of British English and in Cameroon English (CamE). Variations in the use of definite and indefinite articles are dealt with. More specifically, the paper examines various contexts in which definite and indefinite articles are used in Cameroon: specific and non-specific reference, institutional and non-institutional meaning, count and noncount uses, among others. This paper is based on the observation that the influence of the British colonists, especially missionaries (many of whom were not always speakers of Standardized varieties of British English), on various CamE grammatical usages in general and article use in particular has so far been grossly under-researched. In fact, in some contexts, a sizable portion of educated CamE speakers use the articles in much the same way as speakers of certain non-standard dialects of the British Isles. One of the conclusions this paper arrives at is that the history of colonization and evangelization through mission schools might have played a major role in the transportation to, and transplantation into, the colonies (Cameroon in this case), of British non-standard dialects, many features of which eventually took root. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the relationship between corpus linguistics and theoretical linguistics from a variety of standpoints. We consider the nature of the fit between particular theoretical approaches and the three areas in which corpus linguistics has made a significant contribution to our understanding of language: the provision of frequency information, the highlighting of the importance of collocations, and the description of variation and text types. The complex relationship between data, theory, and representation is described with the aim of situating corpus-based research with respect to different linguistic theories, looking broadly at British and American traditions and paying particular attention to usage-based models of language. We then briefly discuss some current issues surrounding theoretical developments within corpus linguistics, including the divide between cognitive and social perspectives; the representation of corpus-based generalisations; and the relationship between patterns in corpus data and patterns in the mind. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of translational norms on the translation of humor manifested in prose fiction has not been a focus of much research. This paper will try to establish the existence of an institutionalized strategy of amplification, presumably born out of a wish to bridge the cultural gap reflected in two different national traditions of literary humor. The effect of amplification, as it is implemented in the various Hebrew translations of Charles Dickens’s The Pickwick Papers and Jerome K. Jerome’s Three Men in a Boat, is analyzed on the basis of Attardo’s General Theory of Verbal Humor (Attardo 2001, 2002). The use of amplification as a model for the translation of humor from the beginning of the 20th century, and its diminishing currency from the 1980s onwards are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although there are many different forms of English, British and American English are the two varieties that are taught in most ESL/EFL programs. Although it is generally agreed that no one version is "correct", the question of dialect awareness on the part of the students and the instructors is becoming an important issue in most EFL settings, and is particularly important in a country like Turkey. This study aims to explore students' and teachers' level of vocabulary knowledge in the two main dialects of English. Conclusions were drawn after the subsequent steps were followed to collect data: 1. A questionnaire was given to university students about vocabulary differences between British and American English. 2. The same questionnaire was also completed by university language teachers in order to determine their level of knowledge in both dialects. 3. Faculty professors were interviewed to find out any preferred choice of materials being taught. The main implication of the study is that one of the best ways to give students every opportunity to perform at their highest level is to ensure that all teachers, regardless of nationality, are fully aware of the differences between the two dialects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents affective ratings for 210 British English and Finnish nouns, including taboo words. The norms were collected with 135 native British English and 304 native Finnish speakers, who rated the words according to their emotional valence, emotional charge, offensiveness, concreteness, and familiarity. The ratings between the two languages were found to be strongly correlated. The present ratings were also strongly correlated with the American English emotional valence and arousal ratings available in the Affective Norms for English Words database (Bradley & Lang, 1999) and the Janschewitz (2008) database for taboo words. These ratings will help researchers to select stimulus materials for a wide range of experiments involving both monolingual and bilingual processing of British English and Finnish emotional words. Materials associated with this article may be accessed as an online supplement from http://brm.psychonomic-journals.org/content/supplemental. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Novitas-ROYAL is the property of Novitas Royal and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The article focuses on the role of the Welsh language in Wales and EU. Firstly, it outlines the conditions under which the Welsh became one of the co-official minority languages in EU in 2009 and, secondly, it analyses relations between EU and Welsh speaking people of Wales. Thirdly, societal and geographical expansion of the Welsh during the 20th century and on the eve of the 21st century is identified, too. The author tries to answer the questions what were the main factors that has influenced the growing importance and use of Welsh mainly among young generation since 1980s, what was the role of the two main political parties - Labour Party and Plaid Cymru - and what was their relation to Welsh language politics. The study concludes that during the 20th century the Welsh was not only saved as a symbol of national identity of Welsh people, but also became part of European public sphere as one of the most important minority languages in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study regarding the chronological disintegration of Celtic languages especially the Gaulish. It states the use of recalibrated glottochronology method to establish the chronology which was developed by Sergei Starostin. It mentions that the method requires etymological analysis of wordlists of Celtic languages to differentiate the lexemes whether borrowed are inherited or determine the cognates. It says that the disintegration begun in ninth century anno Domini (A.D.) for Brittonic and A.D. 700 for Goidelic.

In the Brythonic languages a specific designation for 'daughter-in-law' is used: Welsh gwaudd, pl. gweuddau, gweuddon, Middle Welsh pl. (14th cent.) gwehydon, (15th cent.) gwehyddon ( GPC 1602-03), Old Cornish guhit gl. 'nurus', Old Breton g ... = ?* guhid gl. 'nuro' (Orléans glosses; see Fleuriot 1964, 172 after Stokes), Middle Breton ( Catholicon) gouhezy gl 'nurus', Breton. gouhé, pl. gouhéïon, Vanetais gouéhé 'bru, belle-fille, femme de fils' ( GIB 1007), [ gwii], pl. gwii-jõ] (Hamp 1972-74, 293). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This pilot project investigates second language (L2) learners' attitudes towards three varieties of English: American (AmE), British (BrE) and Australian (AuE). A 69-word passage spoken by a female speaker of each variety was used. Participants were 30 Chinese students pursuing Masters or Doctoral degrees in the United States, who listened to each of the three recordings and evaluated six language-related qualities and 12 person-related qualities about the three varieties of English on seven-point Likert scales. They also evaluated each speaker's teaching suitability. The results suggest that L2 learners have more positive attitudes towards the varieties of English they have been exposed to, i.e. AmE and BrE. However, their attitudes do not seem to be related to the understandability of the passage delivered by the speakers of the three varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a case study on the text type and current grammatical change in British and American English, based from the evidence from the bank of English Corpus. The Corpus evidence shows that adjective accustomed has changed. It centers on the factors that is significant in defending the "to" infinitive pattern with the adjective on considering the role in both forms. It is predicted that in the coming decades both varieties will become frequent in the genre of books.

A common feature of Singaporean English, and found to a lesser extent in British and US English, is the “conventionalised scenario” (Goldberg 1995); i.e. a causative construction in which an intermediate causee is neither expressed nor necessarily recoverable from context and common ground, e.g. You cut your hair, in which the action is normally attributed to another, unexpressed participant. The present study provides written data on the use of conventionalised scenarios in Singapore English and explains their link with competing resultative constructions (e.g. You had/got your hair cut) in terms of an ACTION FOR RESULT grammatical metonymy. In this metonymy, the passival resultative construction is substituted with an active‑voice construction and the causer now stands for both the causer and causee together. Contact features in the Singaporean dialect, relating particularly to local Chinese languages and/or Malay, may influence the distributional extent of conventionalised scenarios, as may the overgeneralisation of the semantic constraints on its usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an acoustic description of the vowels of Brunei English (BrunE). Ten female BrunE speakers were recorded reading The North Wind and the Sun (NWS) passage. The formant values of the eleven monophthong vowels and the rate of change (ROC) of the diphthong /eI/ were measured and compared with the data of seven British English (BrE) speakers and also the results of similar studies on Singapore English (SgE). It was found that BrunE shares some common features with SgE as both groups do not distinguish between /i˜/ and /I/, /e/ and /æ/, and /f˜/ and /#/. The high back vowels of BrunE, however, are unlike the SgE vowels. Whereas in SgE /u˜/ and /~/ are fully back, in BrunE these two vowels are fronted, so they are similar to the vowels of the BrE speakers. The data also shows that BrunE /f˜/ is more open and less back than BrE /f˜/. For /eI/, the average ROC for Bruneian speakers is considerably less negative than that for British speakers, which indicates that in BrunE, just as in SgE, this vowel is less diphthongal than its counterpart in BrE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information about becoming a Breton speaker. It discusses the concept of the Reversing Language Shift, highlighting the efforts and achievements which took place since the last century around the Breton language. Other information such as the advent and growth of bilingual education is presented.

Examines whether American and British university students make different kinds of spelling errors as a function of the differences between their dialects. Rhotic dialect spoken by American students; Nonrhotic dialect of British students; Sample spelling errors of the two groups of students due to dialect differences; Importance of phonology in the development of spelling.

This article discusses the development of Welsh language. From the middle of the sixth century, the Brythonic branch of Celtic had begun to separate into independent languages. The grammars used by the bards treated the minutiae of different types of syllables and their quality, as well as the structure of the language and the acceptable tropes and figures. Wales possessed a considerable literary language common to all regions. This unification was not fortuitous but the result of a conscious, deliberate, and well-organized uniformly directed effort. Bearing in mind the planning of other languages such as Norwegian, Estonian, Turkish, etc., it is hardly conceivable that the development of Welsh should not be attributed at least in part to language planning. But for deliberate and conscious manipulation the Welsh language, left to itself, would have deteriorated beyond redemption, save as a patois. On the other hand, scholars have favored planning. Welsh is used very extensively in the agricultural occupations, especially in Welsh-speaking areas of the north and southwest. Many organizations have been setup to promote the Welsh language, though the majority have ceased to function after a relative short period of activity.

This article focuses on the role of schools in the maintenance of the Welsh language in Wales. Although the Welsh language has never been free of pressure, both external and internal, Welsh has always shown the capacity for change. This may be accredited entirely to the Welsh people, since language is only a tool. However, this particular tool does have a remarkable capacity for adaptation. Welsh is a conservative language. It has survived its demise as a language of independent law and politics and of story-tellers to become first a Renaissance language, then the language of the Bible, and then of liberal radicalism. Since it has been a written language for more than a thousand years, its relationship to schools must be of a similar age. The early schools, monastic and bardic, ensured a tradition of learning and copying which eventually disappeared by the seventeenth century. The tradition was maintained and developed by the Renaissance scholars of the sixteenth century. The seventeenth century saw the beginning of the process of establishing schools, first the Welsh Trust schools, then the Circulating Schools begun about 1731 by Griffith Jones which continued until 1779.

The article discusses a theatrical standard called stage diction and how its lacks of unvarying model created a confusion among actors and their teachers in the eastern U.S. It highlights the recommendation of Gray and Wise that the Southern British pronunciation should be adopted in the American stage and suggest students to use Daniel Jones' "An English Pronouncing Dictionary." It explores the difference of the pronunciation of South of England speech from other speeches.

Focuses on the use of English as the language medium for overseas physicians in Great Britain. Increase in failure rate in the examinations of overseas practitioners; Language problems of overseas doctors; Availability of English language training in various districts.