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This study aimed to evaluate the intensity of posing training in male bodybuilders by comparing it to vigorous intensity parameters and examining the effects of stimulant usage and preparation phases. Specifically, this study compared posing training to established vigorous intensity benchmarks using metabolic equivalents (METs) and heart rate (HR) responses and assessed differences between athletes using stimulants versus those not using stimulants, as well as during peak week versus other preparation phases. Fifteen male bodybuilding athletes (mean age: 32.07 ± 7.82 years; mean body mass: 92.89 ± 9.06 kg; mean height: 1.76 ± 0.05 m; mean body mass index: 29.78 ± 2.24 kg/m²) completed four compulsory posing sets. Findings demonstrated that posing training can be classified as vigorous training intensity using METs (mean difference of −0.50 METs, p = 0.067, ES = −0.51) and maximum HR (mean difference of 14.55 bpm, p = 0.009, ES = 0.79) compared to the established values of 6.0 METs and 77% vigorous intensity of %HRmax, respectively. Additionally, athletes using stimulants exhibited higher ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) of 2.20 arbitrary units (p = 0.008) and maximum HR (mean difference of 24.37 bpm, p = 0.005, ES = 0.79) compared to those not using stimulants. During peak week, athletes showed higher RPE of 2.38 arbitrary units (p = 0.004) and maximum HR (mean difference of 14.55 bpm, p = 0.009, ES = 0.79) compared to other preparation phases. These results indicate that bodybuilding posing training meets the criteria for vigorous exercise intensity and that stimulant use and peak week significantly affect physiological responses and perceived exertion. Novelty: This study is novel in classifying bodybuilding posing training as vigorous intensity exercise using metabolic equivalents (METs) and heart rate (HR) responses. It provides empirical evidence showing that posing training meets the vigorous intensity benchmarks, with METs and %HRmax values comparable to established vigorous exercise standards. The research highlights the novel finding that stimulant usage and the peak week phase of preparation significantly influence physiological responses and perceived exertion in bodybuilders. Specifically, athletes using stimulants and those in peak week displayed higher ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and maximum heart rates, indicating that these factors notably affect the intensity and perceived difficulty of posing training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several observational and experimental studies in humans have suggested that high protein intake (PI) causes intraglomerular hypertension leading to hyperfiltration. This phenomenon results in progressive loss of renal function with long-term exposure to high-protein diets (HPDs), even in healthy people. The recommended daily allowance for PI is 0.83 g/kg per day, which meets the protein requirement for approximately 98% of the population. A HPD is defined as a protein consumption > 1.5 g/kg per day. Athletes and bodybuilders are encouraged to follow HPDs to optimize muscle protein balance, increase lean body mass, and enhance performance. A series of studies in resistance-trained athletes looking at HPD has been published concluding that there are no harmful effects of HPD on renal health. However, the aim of these studies was to evaluate body composition changes and they were not designed to assess safety or kidney outcomes. Here we review the effects of HPD on kidney health in athletes and healthy individuals with normal kidney function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tribulus terrestris is an annual plant belonging to family Zygophyllaceae, which is extensively dispersed globally. T. terrestris has been used to treat a variety of illnesses, including as heart and circulation problems, sexual dysfunction, and to try to improve body building and athletic performance. This Pharmacological study aims to Preliminary phytochemical study and various pharmacological studies like antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory study of Tribulus terrestris. Crude Ext. of the plant undergoes preliminary phytochemical study by various chemical methods; antioxidant assay was done by DPPH radical scavenging method, superoxide anion radical scavenging activity and Nitric oxide radical scavenging technique, antimicrobial study was done by zone inhibition method and anti-inflammatory study was done by protein denaturation and protein inhibitory study. From the above scientific study, various Phytochemicals like Glycoside, tannins, carbohydrate revealed from Tribulus terrestris, the potential antimicrobial, free radical scavenging activity and anti-inflammatory activity of Tribulus terrestris revealed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Objectives: Atherosclerosis, driven by dyslipidaemia and oxidative stress, is a leading cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. This study evaluates the effects of vigorous-intensity bodybuilding exercise (VIBBE) on atherosclerosis biomarkers—including paraoxonase-1 (PON1) and arylesterase (ARE) activities—and lipid profiles in male bodybuilders who do not use anabolic-androgenic steroids. Comparisons were made with individuals engaged in moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (MIAE), as well as overweight/obese sedentary (OOS) and normal-weight sedentary (NWS) individuals. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 122 healthy male participants aged 18–45 years, divided into four groups: VIBBE (n = 31), OOS (n = 30), MIAE (n = 32), and NWS (n = 29). Anthropometric assessments were performed, and fasting blood samples were collected for biochemical analyses, including lipid profiles and PON1 and ARE activities. Statistical analyses compared the groups and evaluated correlations between adiposity measures and atherosclerosis biomarkers. Results: The VIBBE group exhibited significantly lower levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides (TG), and logarithm of the TG to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) ratio [log(TG/HDL-C)] compared to the OOS group (p < 0.05 for all), indicating improved lipid profiles. However, these improvements were not significant when compared to the NWS group (p > 0.05), suggesting that VIBBE may not provide additional lipid profile benefits beyond those associated with normal weight status. PON1 and ARE activities were significantly lower in the VIBBE group compared to the MIAE group (p < 0.05 for both), suggesting that VIBBE may not effectively enhance antioxidant defences. Correlation analyses revealed significant inverse relationships between PON1 and ARE activities and adiposity measures, including body mass index (BMI), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), body fat percentage (BFP), fat mass index (FMI), and obesity degree (OD) (p < 0.05 for all). Positive correlations were observed between oxLDL and log(TG/HDL-C) and adiposity measures (p < 0.05 for all). Conclusions: Vigorous-intensity bodybuilding exercise improves certain lipid parameters compared to sedentary obese individuals but does not significantly enhance antioxidant enzyme activities or further improve lipid profiles beyond those observed in normal-weight sedentary men. Conversely, moderate-intensity aerobic exercise significantly enhances PON1 and ARE activities and improves lipid profiles, offering superior cardiovascular benefits. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating moderate-intensity aerobic exercise into physical activity guidelines to optimize cardiovascular health by balancing improvements in lipid metabolism with enhanced antioxidant defences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Muscularity-oriented disordered eating (MODE) is a novel class of eating behaviors characterised by abnormal dietary alterations aimed towards building lean muscle. Although traditionally shown to affect men, emerging evidence suggests that increasingly more women are striving for the muscular and lean ideal, resulting in engagement of MODE behaviors. Prior research examining MODE in women is limited, yet emerging evidence from cross-sectional studies have established associations between MODE and poor mental health indices in this population. However, the temporal order of these associations in women is not yet known. Thus, the current study examined possible bi-directional associations between MODE behaviors and common mental health outcomes (depression, anxiety, loneliness). Adult women completed online study measures at baseline (Time 1 [T1]; n = 1760) and three-month follow-up (Time 2 [T2]; n = 1180). Cross-lagged panel models were computed to test for possible bi-directional relationships between MODE and the relevant mental health constructs. Findings showed that higher MODE levels at T1 significantly predicted increased depressive and anxiety symptoms (but not loneliness) at T2, and loneliness at T1 (but not depression/anxiety) significantly predicted MODE at T2. Effect sizes were small, so findings should be interpreted with this in mind. This is the first study to establish temporal relationships between MODE and mental health outcomes in adult women. Findings suggest that clinicians may benefit from inquiring about MODE behaviors for proper screening, assessment, and intervention, and potentially addressing loneliness to decrease risk of MODE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, an easy, safe, simple, and efficient pH‐switchable deep eutectic solvents (DESs)‐based liquid phase microextraction followed by high‐performance liquid chromatography‐diode array detector analysis was developed for the determination of 1,3‐dimethylamylamine (DMAA). The switchability of the obtained DESs was investigated by changing the pH. Then the best‐selected DES was characterized and the application of the selected DES in the extraction of DMAA from sports nutrition and bodybuilding supplements was investigated. The DES synthesized from l‐menthol: oleic acid in a molar ratio of 1:2 had the highest efficiency in the extraction of the target compound. Under the optimum conditions, (50 µL of DES, 100 µL of 4 mol/L KOH, 100 µL of 4 mol/L HCl, extraction time of 40 s and without salt addition) the calibration graph was linear in the range of 0.05–100 µg/kg and limit of detection was 0.02 µg/kg. The relative standard deviations including intra‐day and inter‐day for 10.0 µg/kg of DMAA in real samples were 2.7% (n = 7) and 5.3% (n = 7), respectively. The enrichment factor and percentage extraction recovery of the method were 283 and 85%, respectively. The relative recoveries for DMAA in different samples were in the range of 90%–109%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: During the plateau stage of resistance training, in order to cross this stage, it is necessary to manipulate training variables and apply advanced training techniques. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effects of sarcoplasmic stimulation and traditional resistance training on muscle thickness, plasma volume, and testosterone to cortisol ratio in bodybuilders during a plateau period. Materials and Methods: A crossover design was conducted with 10 bodybuilding athletes (26.71±4.1 years, 3.5±1.6 years of training experience) participating in two traditional and sarcoplasmic stimulation protocols over an interval of seven days. During the traditional protocol, eight sets were performed at an intensity of 70-80% of one repetition maximum until failure. As the same, for the sarcoplasmic stimulation protocol, six reduction sets were performed (three sets of 70-80%, three sets with a 20% load reduction and one set of isometrics until failure). Buresh formula was used to measure acute muscle thickness of the biceps muscle, Castille's equation was used to measure changes in plasma volume, and blood samples were taken to determine testosterone and cortisol levels. The difference between the pre-test and post-test values of each variable was determined and the changes were analyzed using the paired t-test at the significance level of p<0.05. Results: The results of the present research showed that the resistance training system with sarcoplasmic stimulation showed significant increase on the acute thickness of the biceps muscle compared to traditional resistance training (p=0.03). However, no significant difference was observed between the two protocols (p<0.05) based on the hormonal response of testosterone and cortisol and changes in plasma volume. Conclusion: In trained individuals, the use of the sarcoplasmic stimulation system appears to be an effective method for passing the plateau stage, despite the lower training volume, it involves more metabolic stress and acute swelling than traditional training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to evaluate the reliability and the level of agreement of the ADR encoder to measure the mean propulsive velocity (MPV) of the bar in the bench press (BP) exercise on the Smith machine. Eleven males (21.6 ± 1.5 years; body mass 76.05 ± 9.73 kg) performed the protocol with isometric phase prior to concentric muscle action (PP) and the protocol in the absence of isometric phase (N-PP) for BP exercise on Smith machine. ADR encoder reported reliability values with almost perfect correlations in all training zones and protocols (PP: ICC = 0.940–0.999, r = 0.899–0.997, CV = 1.56%–4.05%, SEM = 0.0022–0.0153,and MDC = 0.006–0.031 m/s; N-PP: ICC = 0.963–0.999, r = 0.946–0.998, CV = 0.70%–3.01%, SEM = 0.0012–0.0099, and MDC = 0.003–0.027 m/s). Although the levels of agreement were high in both protocols (PP: SEM = 0.0024–0.0204 m/s, MDC = 0.007–0.057 m/s; N-PP: SEM = 0.0034–0.0288 m/s, MDC = 0.009–0.080 m/s), ADR encoder considerably underestimated the MPV values in both protocols (PP: t = −2.239 to −9.486, p < 0.001–0.01; N-PP: t = −6.901 to −17.871, p < 0.001) with respect to the gold standard (T-Force). In conclusion, ADR encoder offers high reliability for the measurement of MPV in bench press exercise performed on Smith machine regardless of their execution mode, in the entire range of intensities. However, this device is not interchangeable with T-Force since it considerably underestimates the MPV values, especially at low loads (0%–40%). Furthermore, the use of too wide load ranges suggests that the data be interpreted with caution, pending further research to corroborate the findings presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Foco (Interdisciplinary Studies Journal) is the property of Revista Foco and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

La vigoressia nervosa, talvolta nota anche come dismorfia muscolare o bigoressia è un costrutto nosologico complesso, caratterizzato da un’intensa preoccupazione per il corpo e comportamenti ossessivi legati all’esercizio fisico e alla dieta. Questo disturbo, sebbene spesso associato all’universo maschile del fitness e del bodybuilding, sta emergendo anche tra le donne e gli adolescenti, riflettendo l’impatto crescente del culto dell’immagine e dei social media sulla percezione del corpo. Questa revisione della letteratura mira a identificare i fattori di rischio, i criteri diagnostici, l’epidemiologia e la relazione con disturbi alimentari e dipendenze, oltre a esaminare il ruolo della vigoressia nelle relazioni e nell’adolescenza. L’analisi dei dati ha rivelato che la vigoressia nervosa è associata a una serie di rischi per la salute, tra cui l’uso di Steroidi Androgeni Anabolizzanti e disturbi del comportamento alimentare. Inoltre, gli individui affetti da vigoressia spesso sperimentano ansia sociale legata al giudizio altrui sul loro aspetto fisico, il che può portare all’isolamento sociale e alla compromissione delle relazioni interpersonali. In conclusione, questa analisi approfondita della vigoressia nervosa fornisce una panoramica completa dei suoi rischi, dei disturbi associati e delle implicazioni per la salute mentale e le relazioni sociali, sottolineando l’importanza di interventi precoci e di strategie preventive mirate per affrontare questo fenomeno emergente soprattutto tra i più giovani.

Since its beginnings, modern bodybuilding has been accompanied by the background issue of whether it should be considered a sport. The problem, culminating in its provisional acceptance as a sport by the International Olympic Committee, was later retracted. The uncertainty of whether bodybuilding is a sport or not seems to linger. Addressing this issue, Aranyosi (2018) provided an account to determine the status of bodybuilding as a sport that arrives at the negative answer: bodybuilding is not a sport but rather a form of artistic presentation. In this paper, we disagree with Aranyosi. We argue that by the standards he presents in his first argument, bodybuilding should be considered a sport. Further, we argue that his alternative approach on how to evaluate a discipline as more sport- or art-like on a spectrum, is not a valid basis to make such a judgment regarding bodybuilding. Further, even if his spectrum was modified to enable such a judgment, again it would result in bodybuilding being evaluated as a sport. Therefore, we conclude that everyone who accepts Aranyosi´s (or any less restrictive) requirements to decide whether bodybuilding is a sport, has to consider bodybuilding as a sport or refrain from making claims about its status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: It is important to assess the quality of fundamental movements, to discover deficits, evaluate mobility, balance, and stability, and identify movement dysfunction and asymmetries. However, little research has been performed on the assessment of fundamental movements with bodybuilders. Purpose: The purpose of this research was to examine the quality of professional and amateur bodybuilders' functional movements and the quality of the back squat performance. A secondary purpose was to discern whether greater experience in bodybuilding was associated with better scores on the back squat assessement (BSA). Study design: Cross-Sectional Cohort Methods: Twenty-six athletes were recruited to participate. The group of professional bodybuilders consisted of five men and six women, a total of 11 athletes. The group of amateur bodybuilders consisted of seven men and eight women, a total of 15 athletes. The Functional Movement Screen™ (FMS™) was used to assess the seven included fundamental patterns that evaluate an individual's neuromuscular control, mobility, balance, and stability. The BSA was used to assess the quality of movement, dysfunction, deficit, or compensation during the squat exercise. Statistical analyses applied non-parametric tests (Wilcoxon, Mann-Whitney U, and Friedman's) for dependent and independent samples, with significance set at p<0.05, and the Spearman correlation coefficient and Chi-square test were used to assess relationships between quantitative and qualitative variables. Results: Overall, athletes with a higher total FMS™ score performed better on the BSA as well. The professional athletes scored 2.58 points higher than the amateurs on total FMS™ scores (p<0.001). Professional athletes scored better on the BSA than amateurs (p<0.001). A statistically significant, positive moderate correlation was revealed between the FMS™ total score and the squat total score (r=0.68; p=0.005). Conclusions: A higher FMS™ score in bodybuilders is associated with a higher BSA score. Professional bodybuilders have higher FMS™ scores and higher BSA scores than amateurs. Greater experience in bodybuilding is associated with the compliance with several BSA criteria: trunk position, frontal knee alignment, tibial translation angle, foot position in all three back squat variations with different external loads, and descent with the training weight. Level of Evidence: 3b [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aim: Evidence suggests there has been an increase in anabolic‐androgenic steroid (AAS) use among women, driven by the evolving landscape of women's participation in sport. However, the extent of use is unknown. This systematic review aimed to estimate the prevalence of women's AAS use. Method: We conducted a systematic review of peer‐reviewed articles in English, focusing on AAS use among women aged 18 and above. We excluded grey literature and studies that measured doping through some form of analysis (e.g. urine or hair). Searched databases were MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, SocINDEX, SPORTDiscus, Embase and Cochrane Library. Titles and abstracts for all articles were screened, followed by full‐text assessment and data extraction of included articles by multiple authors for accuracy. The pooled prevalence of lifetime use was determined using a random effects model and the risk of bias was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Prevalence Critical Appraisal Tool. Results: Based on 18 studies, participant numbers averaged 669 per study (median = 189; range = 16 to 7051). The overall pooled AAS use prevalence was 4% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 2–9%) with high heterogeneity overall (I2 = 95%). In the subgroup analysis, AAS use prevalence was 16.8% (95% CI = 11.0–24.9%, I2 = 44%) in the bodybuilder subgroup, 4.4% (95% CI = 1.2–15.1%, I2 = 93%) in athletes/recreational gym user subgroup, and 1.4% (95% CI = 0.4–4.7%, I2 = 96%) in the general population/other subgroup. Meta‐regression demonstrated significantly higher AAS use in bodybuilders compared with the other subgroup (P = 0.011). Conclusion: Anabolic‐androgenic steroid use among women appears to be substantially higher among bodybuilders and athletes/recreational gym users than the general female population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Hanok is a representative wooden structure in Korea and is recognized for its environmentally friendly architecture. Since the 2010s, the demand for Hanoks has increased significantly, but new Hanoks tend to be built with only numerical changes to existing plans or only imitate the shape. This is due to the fact that architectural designers do not have systematic training in Hanoks, so they rely on carpenters with extensive experience in Hanok construction. As designers reconfigure Hanok's floor plan space using existing drawings to accommodate modernization, the building's form changes as spatial reduction and expansion occur. This change in form creates problems with the proportions of the elements that make up a Hanok, such as the roof being smaller than the body or the building being taller than the scale of the floor plan. A more significant issue is the lack of recognition of the proportion problem. Therefore, this study has a direct role in the systematic design and construction of Hanoks by deriving objective proportions of Hanoks. To increase the objectivity of the data, numerical data of floor plans, cross-sections, and front elevations of national heritage Hanoks with well-preserved traditional shapes were extracted and analyzed for patterns. Subsequently, similar forms were categorized, and ultimately, the plan, section, and elevation proportions were quantified. The results indicated that the plan was characterized by spatial expansion in the X-axis direction more than the Y-axis while maintaining rectangular proportions. The cross-sectional structure showed a change in height depending on the width of the plan, and it was found that the larger the width of the plan, the lower the height ratio of the cross-section. Of particular interest was the analysis of the ratio of exposed area in the elevation, divided into three areas: roof, Gongpo, and the frame, and the interaction between the roof and Gongpo was confirmed within 63.7% of the total exposed area ratio. This result suggests that the proportion of Hanoks exists despite the different scales, times, and locations of Hanoks. This study can serve as a reference for designers in the process of verifying and modifying design drawings, and it is significant in providing a method and direction for building a new dataset for Hanok design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bodybuilding and cross‐training exercises bring health benefits. However, orofacial injuries can occur during practice. This study aimed to map, analyze, interpret, and synthesize data from studies on the main orofacial injuries resulting from bodybuilding and cross‐training practices. This scoping review followed the Joanna Briggs Institute and PRISMA‐ScR methods, with high‐sensitivity searches in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Embase, Virtual Health Library and the Google Scholar. Original scientific articles published up to May 2024 were included, which evaluated the presence of self‐reported or professionally diagnosed orofacial injuries by bodybuilding and cross‐training practitioners aged 18 years or older. Literature reviews, editorials, and guidelines were excluded. Tables and figures were used to map and summarize the results. Out of 30.485 potentially eligible articles, four were included. The main orofacial injuries identified in both bodybuilding and cross‐training practitioners were dental damage (n = 4), temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorders (n = 3), and traumas to oral soft tissues (n = 2) and facial soft tissues (n = 2). Dental damage and TMJ disorders were the most prevalent conditions among bodybuilding and cross‐training practitioners. Therefore, dental damage and TMJ disorders were the most prevalent conditions among bodybuilding and cross‐training practitioners. However, further prospective studies with more in‐depth methodological designs and fewer biases are necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: It was aimed to examine the dyspnea (shortness of breath) conditions experienced by individuals interested in bodybuilding and fitness sports during training according to various variables. Method: The study was conducted using the relational survey model, which is one of the descriptive survey models. The population for the research comprises individuals who are members of fitness and bodybuilding centres operating in Diyarbakir. The sample was made up of 379 individuals, consisting of 209 males and 170 females aged between 18 to 32, who had been members of these centres and engaged in sports for at least one year, based on the appropriate sampling criteria. The Personal Information Form and Dyspnea- 12 Scale were utilised as data collection tools in the investigation. Results: The study determined that the average age of the participants was 24.21 (±3.93) years. Demographic data showed that 39.3% of the athletes were identified as smokers, 16.1% suffered from chronic diseases, and 38% were diagnosed with Covid-19. Upon examining dyspnea conditions experienced during training, it was discovered that men (11.01), smokers (5.49), individuals with chronic diseases (21.04), and those diagnosed with Covid-19 (18.03) exhibited higher Dyspnea-12 scale scores. Furthermore, a positive and significant correlation between participant age, total scale score, and sub-dimension scores was identified. Conclusion: It has been observed that male individuals, smokers, individuals with chronic diseases and individuals diagnosed with Covid-19 experience greater shortness of breath. Moreover, it has been noticed that the severity of shortness of breath during exercise increases with participant age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Brasileira de Nutrição e Esportiva is the property of Instituto Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Ensino em Fisiologia do Exercicio and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Brasileira de Nutrição e Esportiva is the property of Instituto Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Ensino em Fisiologia do Exercicio and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Artefactos: Revista de Estudios Sobre La Ciencia Y La Tecnologia is the property of Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Mediterranean Journal of Sport Science (MJSS) is the property of Mediterranean Journal of Sport Science (MJSS) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the last five years the bodybuilding industry has been shaken by a significant number of high-profile deaths caused by a combination of the cocktail of drugs (anabolic-androgenic steroids, growth hormone, insulin and diuretics) and the heavy bodyweights required to place well in competitions that are not drug tested. This article uses Lacan's redevelopment of the Freudian concept of the death drive to study the sport's discursive output—its forums, adverts and interviews—to understand the attachment of bodybuilders and bodybuilding fans to an activity that bewilders non-participants, has little financial reward and obvious negative health ramifications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the construction of femininity and sexuality, specifically as trans* intersect with race/ethnicity, in sport. The third author (S.F.'s) lived experiences as a Hong Kong Chinese gender-fluid bodybuilder who competes in international women's bodybuilding contests serve as an impetus to examine cultural norming and marginalization in professional sport. Narrative analysis and autobiographical memory are used to understand SF's construction of identities in relation to her sociocultural environment and as a political process that alerts us to the power structures that permit certain stories to be told while silencing others. Specifically, this article problematizes how professional women bodybuilders are being constructed as objects that are expected to embody Whiteness and 'authentic heightened femininity'. It highlights how the intersection of genderfluidity, race/ethnicity and bodybuilding defy dominant understandings of what is aesthetically, experientially and physically acceptable within the 'norm' in both 'Eastern' and 'Western', and masculine and feminine worlds. The discussion aims to provide implications to moving beyond the enduring binary gendered, racialized and sexual assumptions in women sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The off-season for natural bodybuilders (BB) is characterized by increased training loads and fluctuations in caloric intake, which may lead to insufficient recovery. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) plays a pivotal role in recovery. The purpose of this study was to evaluate resting ANS activity and recovery following a maximal exercise bout in off-season BB and compare them to those of recreationally active individuals. Fifteen males participated; 7 recreationally active (RA) (24.6 ± 2.1 years, 81.1 ± 10.8 kg) and 8 BB (21.8 ± 2.9 years, 89.3 ± 13.0 kg). Each performed a graded exercise test. Heart rate variability (HRV) was measured at rest and during a 45 min recovery period. HRV was analyzed as: root mean square of successive differences (lnRMSSD), standard deviation of normal-to-normal sinus beats (lnSDNN), high frequency (lnHF), low frequency (lnLF), and the ratio of low frequency to high frequency (lnLF/lnHF). A one-way ANOVA showed no differences for any resting marker of HRV, HR, and HR recovery. A significant depression in all markers of HRV was observed in the BB group at the 15 min point, and no recovery was observed before 45 min when compared to RA. The results of this study demonstrated depressed HRV recovery following the graded exercise test in BB when compared to the RA group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals involved in body building frequently experience sagittal imbalance, a prevalent issue observed in the spinal setting. Nevertheless, there has been a lack of adequate evidence to enhance the understanding of the matter among sports organisations, coaches, and body builders. Furthermore, individuals diagnosed with lumbar disc herniation (LDH) who participate in body building have shown a high prevalence of this issue. Therefore, microdiscectomy is a highly efficacious surgical intervention for the treatment of this medical issue. The primary objective of this research is to assess the impact of microdiscectomy on the sagittal vertical axis and sagittal balance in a cohort of 102 body builders with sagittal imbalance in Turkey. The study aims to shed light on the significant consequences for sports health in this setting. The study examined several spinopelvic characteristics, including sacral slope (SS), pelvis incidence (PI), pelvis tilt (PT), thoracic kyphosis (TK), sagittal vertical axis (SVA), and lumbar lordosis (LL). However, we only considered the degree of trunk shift to assess coronal alignment. Furthermore, the researchers also documented the "electromyography (EMG) index’’. The findings derived from this investigation demonstrated that all participants successfully regained their sagittal and coronal balances after undergoing discectomy. A notable disparity was noted in the sagittal vertical axis (SVA) across the entire spinal column, both prior to (11.7 ± 6.7) and after the surgical procedure (0.51 ± 2.7) (p < 0.050). Significant outcomes were observed in both the parameters related to the pelvic region and the spine. Following the surgical intervention, there was a notable decrease in the angle of TK, namely from 24.8 ± 11.4 to 22.1 ± 9.7 (p < 0.050). Simultaneously, the angle of LL exhibited a notable enhancement from an initial value of 25.4 ± 14.1 to 42.5 ± 10.4 following the surgical intervention (p < 0.050). However, following the surgical procedure, there was a noticeable increase in the average angle of SS, which rose from 25.7 ± 9.6 to 30.41 ± 8.8 (p < 0.050). The angle of PT exhibited a drop from 20.8 ± 7.9 to 15.7 ± 5.6, indicating statistically significant results (p < 0.050). Therefore, the findings of this study demonstrate the efficacy of micro-discectomy in ameliorating sagittal imbalance among body builders diagnosed with LDH following surgical intervention. This study has also yielded valuable insights into the sports' health implications for enhancing the overall performance of body builders. It has achieved this by implementing diverse rehabilitation protocols and ensuring the long-term monitoring of athletes with LDH who are undergoing treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Spor Hekimligi Dergisi/Turkish Journal of Sports Medicine is the property of Turkish Journal of Sports Medicine / Spor Hekimleri Dernegi and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: This study investigated the nutritional knowledge and prevalence of dietary supplements (DSs) among Iranian bodybuilders. Methods: This cross-sectional research study involved sampling 648 bodybuilding clubs in Iran. A researcher distributed questionnaires among clubs in various regions and analyzed categorical variables, DS, nutritional knowledge, and sports nutrition data from 160 bodybuilders aged 18 and above in Iran. The analysis was conducted using the results obtained from a quantitative questionnaire. Results: There was a significant relationship between DS use and gender (P = 0.001, r = 0.330, males > females), bodybuilding history (P = 0.045; r = 0.158), and exercise sessions/wk (P = 0.050, r = 0.156). Whey protein (45.6%) and branched-chain amino acid (33.7%), vitamin D (50%), caffeine (34.3%), and generally vitamin C (56.2%) were the most common DS used. The most information sources for bodybuilders regarding DS were fitness coaches (35.6%) and registered dietitians/nutritionists (34.3%). Drug stores (36.7%) and fitness coaches (19.3%) were the most prominent sources for purchasing DS. Increasing performance (54.3%), increasing the need for DS through exercise (53.6%), preventing injury, and improving recovery (36.2%) were the most important reasons to consume DS. Skin problems (21.0%), increased liver enzymes (10.8%), and hair loss (9.4%) were the most common side effects of DS use. Total nutritional knowledge (macronutrients, micronutrients, and sports nutrition) was 58.6%. Conclusions: This study concluded that fitness coaches and registered dietitians/nutritionists were the most common information sources for bodybuilders. It also revealed a moderate level of nutrition knowledge among bodybuilders. The most commonly used DS were vitamins C, D, and whey protein. Also, gender, bodybuilding history, and exercise sessions had a significant relationship with the prevalence of DS. However, the study also revealed some concerning findings; bodybuilders commonly experienced adverse side effects such as skin rashes, increased liver enzymes, and hair loss.

Subclavian artery occlusion (SAO) is a rare form of peripheral artery disease, sometimes associated with arterial thoracic outlet syndrome (ATOS). Subclavian arterial and venous occlusions are often misdiagnosed initially, and their clinical presentation can be confusing in bodybuilding athletes with increased vascularity in combination with anabolic steroid use. We present a 63-year-old male weightlifter with a history of hypertensive cardiomyopathy, renal transplant with left upper extremity arteriovenous fistula and subsequent takedown, cervical spinal stenosis, left rotator cuff surgery, and decades of testosterone injections who presented with years of left shoulder and neck pain. After having seen multiple providers and being diagnosed with various common disorders, CT angiography and conventional angiography were eventually performed and confirmed the presence of chronic SAO. The chronic occlusion was not deemed amenable to surgery or endovascular intervention and was treated medically with anticoagulation. Although anabolic steroid use is associated with arterial thrombosis, to our knowledge, this is the first reported case of SAO in a weightlifter. Initial misdiagnosis resulted in a long and costly workup. Although the patient's symptoms were consistent with occlusion (and his increased vascularity could potentially suggest chronic thrombosis of any kind), these key signs were masked given his weightlifting history, anabolic steroid use, and concurrent degenerative musculoskeletal conditions common to the weightlifting population. A thorough history, comprehensive physical examination, appropriate imaging studies, and a high index of suspicion for vascular occlusion in athletes who use steroids are critical for the timely diagnosis and treatment of SAO.

Abstract Background This study explored the deloading practices of competitive strength and physique athletes. A 55-item anonymised web-based survey was distributed to a convenience-based, cross-sectional sample of competitive strength and physique athletes (n = 246; males = 181 [73.6%], females = 65 [26.4%]; age = 29.5 ± 8.6 years) who had 8.2 ± 6.2 years of resistance training and 3.8 ± 3.1 years of competition experience. Results All athletes deloaded within training with energy and fatigue management being the main reasons to do so. The typical duration of a deload was 6.4 ± 1.7 days, integrated into the training programme every 5.6 ± 2.3 weeks. Deloading was undertaken using a proactive, pre-planned strategy (or in combination with an autoregulated approach) and undertaken when performance stalled or during periods of increased muscle soreness or joint aches. Athletes reported that training volume would decrease (through a reduction in both repetitions per set and sets per week), but training frequency would remain unchanged during deloads. Additionally, athletes reported that training intensity (load lifted) would decrease, and effort would be reduced (facilitated through an increase in repetitions in reserve). Athletes would generally maintain the same exercise selection during deloading. For athletes that supplemented deloading with additional recovery modalities (n = 118; 48%), the most reported strategies were massage, static stretching and foam rolling. Conclusion Results from this research might assist strength and physique athletes and coaches to plan their deloading. Future research should empirically investigate the findings from this study to further evaluate the potential utility of deloading in strength and physique sports.

From 1914 to 1957, athlete, author, and artist Harry Paschall entertained physical culturists with his striking images, wisdom, and wit. As a columnist and editor for Strength & Health, he gained notoriety for his pungent writing style and controversial views, enhanced by cartoons of Bosco, a superstrong hero who defends Paschall's views on health, fitness, and weight training. Behind the scenes, however, suspicions always lurked that Paschall's idealistic portrayals were not reality-based. Some suspected that Paschall harbored anti-Semitic sentiments and his articles were as much political statements as physical culture contributions. This perspective stems largely from Harry's scathing portrayal of Bosco's antithesis, Weedy Man, a caricature of training methods espoused by the rival Weider organization which stressed form rather function. By unpacking evidence of Harry Bosco's life, it is possible to determine how much anti-Semitism, alcoholism, homophobia, and an unhealthy lifestyle played a role in his intemperate actions and death. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drug-induced liver injury resulting from herbal and dietary supplement use is increasingly common and underrecognized. We report a case of a 34-year-old male recreational bodybuilder who presented with muscle cramping, fatigue, and diffuse itching in the setting of bodybuilding supplement use. Labs showed cholestatic liver injury, and liver biopsy revealed bland cholestasis and sinusoidal dilation. He was diagnosed with anabolic-androgenic steroid-induced liver injury. He was symptomatically managed with plasmapheresis for debilitating pruritus. This case highlights drug-induced liver injury as a complication of bodybuilding supplement use containing unlabeled anabolic-androgenic steroids. Sports medicine providers should inquire on herbal and dietary supplement use and be aware of potential contaminants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of moderate dose of caffeine consumption in one session on endurance performance and strength of male athletes. Methods: The research method is semi-experimental. The statistical population of this research consisted of all active male students of Azad University in 2017. Statistical sample of 60 male athletes (age: 19.63.39±39 years; weight: 68.90±7.63 kg; height: 175.45±5.81 cm; fat percentage: 8.01±2.42 percent) They were randomly selected and divided into two groups of 30 endurance or strength based on their sports field. Subjects performed pre-test and post-test separately. In the first attempt of the subjects, the test of running to exhaustion with 80% of the reserve heart rate (endurance group), one repetition maximum (IRM) and also muscular endurance (number of repetitions until fatigue with 60% of 1RM) for two movements of chest press and leg press ( Power group) performed. After a week of rest, the subjects returned to the laboratory for the second stage of the test and were divided into two groups of caffeine or placebo in terms of Vo2max (endurance group and maximum strength). In a single-blind design, one hour after taking capsules containing 6 mg of caffeine or placebo (starch) per kilogram of body weight, the duration of running to stop, muscle strength and endurance of the subjects were recorded for two movements of chest press and leg press. The results of the statistical analysis of the data were performed with the independent and dependent t-test at a significant level (P≥0.05). Results: In the caffeine group, the running time and also the number of repetitions with 60% of IRM for the chest press and leg press showed a significant increase compared to the pre-test phase (P≥0.05), while no significant changes were observed in the placebo group (05 /0≤P). The changes in the duration of running, the number of repetitions of chest press and leg press of the subjects in the caffeine group compared to the placebo group were statistically significant (P≥0.05), but no significant change was observed for their muscle strength (P≤0.05). Conclusion: According to the results of the research, it can be said that a moderate dose of caffeine can have positive effects on endurance performance, especially at maximum intensities, and also on some strength parameters at moderate intensities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natural physique athletes strive to achieve low body fat levels while promoting muscle mass hypertrophy for competition day. This study aimed to compare the anthropometric characteristics of natural amateur (AMA) and professional (PRO) World Natural Bodybuilding Federation (WNBF) competitors. Eleven male natural physique athletes (6 PRO and 5 AMA; age = 24.8 ± 2.3 years) underwent a comprehensive anthropometric evaluation following the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry protocol within a 24-hour time frame surrounding the competition. The 5-component fractionation method was used to obtain the body composition profile of the muscle, adipose, bone, skin, and residual tissues. Five physique athletes exceeded the 5.2 cutoff point of muscle-to-bone ratio (MBR) for natural athletes. Professional physique athletes were older than AMA physique athletes (p = 0.05), and they also presented larger thigh girths (p = 0.005) and bone mass (p = 0.019) compared with AMA physique athletes. Although no statistically significant between-group differences were observed in body mass, height, or body fat levels, PRO physique athletes exhibited a higher body mass index (BMI; AMA: 24.45 ± 0.12; PRO: 25.52 ± 1.01; p = 0.048), lean body mass (LBM; AMA: 64.49 ± 2.35; PRO: 69.80 ± 3.78; p = 0.024), fat-free mass (FFM; AMA: 71.23 ± 3.21; PRO: 76.52 ± 4.31; p = 0.05), LBM index (LBMI; AMA: 20.65 ± 0.52; PRO: 21.74 ± 0.85; p = 0.034), and fat-free mass index index (FFMI; AMA: 22.80 ± 0.22; PRO: 23.83 ± 0.90; p = 0.037) compared with AMA physique athletes. These findings highlight the unique characteristics and anthropometric differences between PRO and AMA natural physique athletes on competition day, emphasizing the significance of age, thigh girth, bone mass, BMI, LBM, FFM, and FFMI in distinguishing these 2 groups. Based on our findings, the established boundaries for muscle mass in natural physique athletes, based on FFMI and MBR, warrant reconsideration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Brasileira de Nutrição e Esportiva is the property of Instituto Brasileiro de Pesquisa e Ensino em Fisiologia do Exercicio and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Before 1900, in the Czech lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, the lean body of an athlete became a representation of strength, health, and beauty. Through Sokol gymnastics, the body of every Czech man was to be shaped into the form of the somatic mythotype Apollo. After 1900, in circuses, variety shows, and strength sports clubs, a new ideal man embodying somatic mythotype Hercules appeared: the strongman, who transformed a lightly muscled Apollonian shape into a modern Herculean form bulking massive shredded musculature. Strongman Gustav Frištenský in particular, whose body was eroticized, photogenized, nationalized, and racialized, embodied a mobilizing sports star who strengthened the Czech national community. Frištenský's body was shaped by Hellenistic idealism, which gave rise to his adherence to the somatic mythotype of Hercules. This subsequently gave birth to 'musculinity', a new kind of hegemonic masculinity. The perception of Frištenský's body was influenced by a physical resemblance to the Estonian wrestler Georg Lurich, by practices of othering, and the myth of white male supremacy. The steel and statuesque aesthetic of Frištenský's body and the voyeurism of the masses then undermined traditional middle-class prudery and patriarchal control over the distribution of visual pleasure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Background: Reports of DILI due to herbal and dietary supplements have been increasing over time. Aims: To characterise clinical, laboratory and histopathological phenotypes and outcomes of drug‐induced liver injury (DILI) due to anabolic‐androgenic steroids (AAS), selective androgen receptor modulators (SARMs), and bodybuilding supplements (BBS) in Australia. Methods: Retrospective case series. Patients presented to nine Australian tertiary hospitals, 2017–2023. DILI was defined biochemically and patients were included if their treating physician attributed DILI to preceding use of AAS, SARMs or BBS. Primary endpoint was time to normalisation of liver biochemistry. Secondary endpoints were hospitalisation for investigation or management of DILI, death attributable to liver injury, and liver transplantation. Results: Twenty‐three cases of DILI were identified, involving 40 drugs: 18 AAS, 14 SARMs and eight BBS. Patients were predominantly male (22/23), with median age 30 years (IQR 26–42). Most were symptomatic (21/23). Median latency of onset was 58 days (IQR 28–112 days) from drug commencement. Most patients (17/23) were admitted to hospital. Based on updated Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method, DILI was possible in 17/23, probable in 2/23 and unlikely in 4/23. Median time to normalisation of liver biochemistry was 175 days (IQR 70–292 days) from presentation. Three (3/23) were treated with corticosteroids, 14/23 were treated for itch, and one (1/23) underwent liver transplantation. There were no deaths. Conclusions: The prognosis of DILI from AAS, SARMs and BBS is good although liver transplantation may rarely be required. A detailed drug history is important in uncovering DILI due to these supplements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite increasing awareness of plant-based diets for health and athletic performance, athletes are cautioned that careful dietary monitoring is necessary. Whether commonly consumed plant-based diets are nutritionally adequate for maximal muscular hypertrophy remains unknown. This modeling study assessed the nutrient composition of completely plant-based diets scaled to the caloric demands of maximal muscle mass and strength development in adult male bodybuilders. To model calorie requirements, anthropometric data from bodybuilders were input into the Tinsley resting metabolic rate prediction equation, and an appropriate physical activity factor and calorie surplus were applied. Dietary data from a large cohort following completely plant-based diets were then scaled to meet these needs. Modeled intakes for nutrients of interest were calculated as 1.8 g/kg/day of protein and 2.75 g/meal of leucine, which surpass mean requirements for maximal increases in muscle mass and strength and muscle protein synthesis, respectively. Daily levels for all micronutrients, except vitamin D, also exceeded requirements. Saturated fat levels were aligned with dietary guidelines, although sodium levels exceeded recommended limits. Consumption of larger portions of commonplace plant-based diets, scaled to meet the energy demands of maximal accrual of muscle mass and strength, satisfied protein and leucine requirements without the need for additional planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Objective Methods Results Discussion and conclusion A link between androgen use and the risk of cancers, especially prostate and breast cancer, has been suggested. The knowledge about a possible association is limited.The study aimed to investigate cancer incidence rates, particularly those related to prostate and breast cancer, in male androgen users and compare them to a control group.We included male androgen users identified through a nationwide anti‐doping testing program in Danish fitness centers from 2006 to 2018. We paired each case with 50 male controls of the same age, selected randomly. The cohort was followed from baseline and until 2023. The outcome was the incidence of prostate cancer, breast cancer, or any cancer excluding non‐melanoma skin cancer.The study included 1,189 androgen users and 59,450 controls, with a mean age of 27 years at enrolment. During the follow‐up period with a mean length of 11 years, 13 androgen users, and 612 controls were diagnosed with cancer. This resulted in an incidence rate ratio of 1.05 (95% CI: 0.55–1.81). None of the androgen users were diagnosed with prostate or breast cancer.Male androgen users did not face an increased short‐term risk of cancer, neither overall nor related to prostate or breast cancer. Our study indicates that the absolute risk of malignancies in androgen users is comparable to that in the background population. However, we cannot exclude androgens as a cancer risk factor due to the limited sample size, relatively short follow‐up period, and subject age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The aim of the present study was to investigate the expansion and prevalence of anabolic steroid use by examining the divergent effects between health and drug abuse and to create more awareness around the harmful consequences of these drugs when administered at abusive levels. Methods: A focused and concise literature search was conducted, and 101 high-quality articles were included in the review. Results: The findings underscore the adverse health risks of steroid abuse, emphasizing the stark contrast between health and drug abuse. Conclusions: While steroids and other performance-enhancing drugs can yield muscle growth, strength and even fat loss, abusing these substances can lead to adverse health outcomes. Furthermore, within the fitness subculture, particularly in the realm of bodybuilding, steroid abuse fosters an atmosphere of cheating and deception, frequently downplaying or ignoring the negative and sometimes deadly consequences it brings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Hormonal doping in recreational sports is a public-health concern. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) promoted the creation of the Athlete Biological Passport, aiming to monitor athlete's biological variables over time to facilitate indirect detection of doping. Detection tests for anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) and growth hormone (GH) are available while insulin abuse cannot be revealed. We have determined in recreational bodybuilders the metabolic effects associated with different patterns of hormone abuse. All analyses were conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 21.0 software (SPSS Chicago, IL). Results: We have assessed plasma concentrations of selected metabolic markers and fatty acid content in erythrocyte membranes of 92 male bodybuilders and in 45 healthy controls. Hormonal abuse was identified by anonymous questionnaires. 43% (%) of recruited bodybuilders regularly abused hormones, i.e., anabolic androgenic steroids (95%) often associated with GH (30%) and/or insulin (38%). HDL-cholesterol was lower in insulin and/or GH abusers. Alanine (ALT) and aspartic (AST) transaminases were greater in hormone abusing bodybuilders than in non-doping bodybuilders and controls. Insulin doping was selectively associated with increased plasma ALT-to-AST ratio. In erythrocyte membranes, elongase activity (i.e., stearic-to-palmitic ratio) was lower in insulin and/or growth hormone doping, whereas increased Δ-9 desaturase activity (i.e., palmitoleic-to-palmitic ratio) was selectively associated with insulin doping. Conclusions: In conclusion, our study demonstrates that insulin and GH abuse are characterized by multiple alterations of specific metabolic markers. Although further studies are needed to test whether longitudinal monitoring of selected metabolic marker such as muscle contraction time, HDL levels, ALT-AST ratio as well as the activities of selected enzymes (e.g. Δ-9 desaturase and elongase), could contribute to the detection of insulin and GH abuse in sport. Key Points: Drug abuse is common among bodybuilder athletes. Substances combinations can result in significant health risks, including cardiovascular events, hormonal imbalances, and metabolic complications. The World Anti-Doping Agency promoted the creation of the Athlete Biological Passport, aiming to monitor athlete's biological variables over time to facilitate indirect detection of doping. Detection tests for anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) and growth hormone (GH) are available while insulin abuse cannot be revealed. The present study investigates the effects of insulin, GH, and AAS abuse on selected metabolic parameters of recreational bodybuilders to identify selective, sensitive markers useful in longitudinal doping detection and, possibly, to be incorporated in the WADA Athlete Biological Passport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]