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Mesocarnivores fill important roles in ecological communities globally, but their distribution and abundance are often understudied. Many species have historically been regarded as vermin and subject to lethal control due to their role in livestock predation. Identifying the factors influencing mesocarnivore populations can help disentangle their relationship within ecological communities and inform conflict mitigation and conservation priorities. To help identify these factors, we used camera traps to study the community of medium and large mammals in four communal conservancies of northeastern Namibia covering the wet and dry seasons using 99 and 97 camera trap stations, respectively. We modelled black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) abundance using the robust Royle-Nichols model. Black-backed jackal were widespread, with a mean per site abundance of 2.01 (SD=0.66) in the wet season and 2.41 (SD=0.49) in the dry season. Black-backed jackal showed seasonally contrasting covariate associations, with lower abundance in areas with medium and large-sized wild prey during the wet season, and higher abundance in areas with more villages and close to African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) dens in the dry season. We identified localized hotspots of black-backed jackal abundance during the dry season, which may indicate that when resources are scarce, black-backed jackals rely on anthropogenic food sources despite an elevated risk for conflict, and on carcass remains from African wild dog kills. These findings highlight potential drivers of mesocarnivore abundance that would be obscured in a conventional occurrence modelling framework, and illustrate how local abundance may be influenced by seasonal variability, wild and anthropogenic food sources, and a likely facilitative relationship with a large carnivore. Further investigations in areas with more complex carnivore guilds and higher density of dominant predators are needed to understand black-backed jackal-African wild dog interactions and impacts on population dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mesocarnivores fill important roles in ecological communities globally, but their distribution and abundance are often understudied. Many species have historically been regarded as vermin and subject to lethal control due to their role in livestock predation. Identifying the factors influencing mesocarnivore populations can help disentangle their relationship within ecological communities and inform conflict mitigation and conservation priorities. To help identify these factors, we used camera traps to study the community of medium and large mammals in four communal conservancies of northeastern Namibia covering the wet and dry seasons using 99 and 97 camera trap stations, respectively. We modelled black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) abundance using the robust Royle-Nichols model. Black-backed jackal were widespread, with a mean per site abundance of 2.01 (SD=0.66) in the wet season and 2.41 (SD=0.49) in the dry season. Black-backed jackal showed seasonally contrasting covariate associations, with lower abundance in areas with medium and large-sized wild prey during the wet season, and higher abundance in areas with more villages and close to African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) dens in the dry season. We identified localized hotspots of black-backed jackal abundance during the dry season, which may indicate that when resources are scarce, black-backed jackals rely on anthropogenic food sources despite an elevated risk for conflict, and on carcass remains from African wild dog kills. These findings highlight potential drivers of mesocarnivore abundance that would be obscured in a conventional occurrence modelling framework, and illustrate how local abundance may be influenced by seasonal variability, wild and anthropogenic food sources, and a likely facilitative relationship with a large carnivore. Further investigations in areas with more complex carnivore guilds and higher density of dominant predators are needed to understand black-backed jackal-African wild dog interactions and impacts on population dynamics.

Introduction: There have only been a few molecular studies conducted on the detection of T. gondii in tissues of carnivores in South Africa, with no data on the genetic diversity of this parasite. That is why the aim of this study was to detect and genotype T. gondii DNA in tissues of selected wild and domestic carnivores in South Africa. Methods: Samples were collected from 80 animals of 20 species (mainly roadkilled) in the four provinces of Limpopo (n=57), Mpumalanga (n=21), Gauteng (n=1) and Free State (n=1) during the period 2014--2018. Samples of brain (n=31), heart (n=4), liver (n=40), spleen (n=2) and lung (n=3) were used to detect T. gondii by real-time PCR targeting a 529 bp repeating fragment of T. gondii DNA. Samples that were positive in real-time PCR were genotyped using 15 microsatellite markers. Results: T. gondii DNA was detected in 4 (5 %) samples: in the brain from a Blackbacked Jackal (Canis mesomelas), in the liver from a African Wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica) and in the liver and heart of two Rusty-spotted Genets (Genetta maculata) respectively. The DNA sample from Black-backed Jackal was genotyped and characterized as belonging to the type Africa 4 lineage (equivalent to RFLP genotype ToxoDB#20), that is a widespread lineage in Africa. Discussion: This is the first genetic characterization of T. gondii isolated from a wild carnivore on the African continent and the first report of T. gondii in Blackbacked Jackal. The Africa 4 lineage was also confirmed in the region of Southern Africa for the first time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study was conducted in the isolated desert town of Oranjemund in the far south of Namibia. It is an extremely arid region where no livestock husbandry is practiced and only animals adapted to the desert can be found. However, in and around the city, artificial irrigation maintains lush green patches of grass that attract wild animals, in particular oryx antelopes (Oryx gazella). In 2015 four oryx antelopes were euthanised due to poor conditions and a post-mortem examination was conducted. Two were found positive for cystic echinococcosis and 16 cysts were collected for molecular analyses. In addition, faecal samples from black-backed jackals (n=5) and domestic dogs (n=9), which were regularly observed to feed on oryx carcasses, were collected and taeniid eggs isolated. Parasite species identification of the cysts and eggs was done by amplifying and sequencing the mitochondrial nad1 gene. Both oryx antelopes were found infected with E. ortleppi and one co-infected with E. canadensis G6/7. Both Echinococcus species were able to develop fertile cysts in oryx, making oryx antelopes competent hosts for these parasites. Therefore, the analysis of faecal samples was of high interest and although the numbers were quite small, taeniid eggs were found in three out of five faecal samples of jackals and in all nine dog samples. However, species determination was only successful with two jackal and one dog sample. All three were positive for E. canadensis G6/7. The absence of E. ortleppi may be due to the low number of faecal samples examined. In our small study, we discovered a rather unique lifecycle of Echinococcus spp. between jackals and domestic dogs as definitive hosts and oryx antelopes as intermediate hosts. Here, the presence of E. canadensis G6/7 is of particular concern, as it is the second most important causative agent of CE in humans.

Predation threatens the viability of livestock farming, while lethal predator management can negatively influence wildlife ecology. There is renewed interest in non-lethal vs lethal methods of livestock protection, but a systematic comparison is lacking. Using multivariate models, we explored how predator management (shepherd, no shepherd), land tenure, flock characteristics, and environmental factors drive losses of small livestock across the Northern Cape, South Africa. Black-backed jackal and caracal were the dominant livestock predators in both management groups. Predation of small livestock was five-fold lower in the shepherd (1.29% ± 0.38) compared to the non-shepherd group (6.09% ± 0.51; p < 0.0001), with a seven-fold lower-level of lamb predation (1.67% ± 0.51 vs. 11.52% ± 0.99; p < 0.0001). Predator management, livestock type, and flock size (but not land tenure or environmental factors) were predictor variables in a best-fit linear mixed effects model describing small livestock losses (p < 0.0001). We interpret our findings with caution because we could not control for predator and prey abundances, and the non-herder group could have inflated their predation estimates. While the efficacy of shepherding requires more research, we suggest that it is a viable predation management approach in South Africa and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionThere have only been a few molecular studies conducted on the detection of T. gondii in tissues of carnivores in South Africa, with no data on the genetic diversity of this parasite. That is why the aim of this study was to detect and genotype T. gondii DNA in tissues of selected wild and domestic carnivores in South Africa.MethodsSamples were collected from 80 animals of 20 species (mainly road-killed) in the four provinces of Limpopo (n=57), Mpumalanga (n=21), Gauteng (n=1) and Free State (n=1) during the period 2014–2018. Samples of brain (n=31), heart (n=4), liver (n=40), spleen (n=2) and lung (n=3) were used to detect T. gondii by real-time PCR targeting a 529 bp repeating fragment of T. gondii DNA. Samples that were positive in real-time PCR were genotyped using 15 microsatellite markers.ResultsT. gondii DNA was detected in 4 (5 %) samples: in the brain from a Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas), in the liver from a African Wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica) and in the liver and heart of two Rusty-spotted Genets (Genetta maculata) respectively. The DNA sample from Black-backed Jackal was genotyped and characterized as belonging to the type Africa 4 lineage (equivalent to RFLP genotype ToxoDB#20), that is a widespread lineage in Africa.DiscussionThis is the first genetic characterization of T. gondii isolated from a wild carnivore on the African continent and the first report of T. gondii in Black-backed Jackal. The Africa 4 lineage was also confirmed in the region of Southern Africa for the first time.

South Africa has approximately 8,000 commercial small livestock farms and 5,800 communal/subsistence farmers throughout the country. Reported rates of small livestock loss to predation range from 3-13% and 0.5-19% from communal farming areas. A range of predators exist on the African continent, but in southern Africa major livestock losses are primarily due to black-backed jackal and caracal. South Africans have been managing caracals and jackals for over 300 years with no elimination of predation. During the aforementioned time frame, producers have used and/or developed a number of techniques including lethal, nonlethal, and integrated predator damage management to address predation losses. In the Karoo area of South Africa, one producer decided that a new way needs to be developed after losing over 60 lambs in a month, while practicing continuous removal of caracal and black-backed jackal. His integrated predator damage management system includes using a prototype nonlethal collar system for sheep and lambs. The collars are used to train dominant pairs of predators to avoid predation while maintaining their territories and keeping transient predators out of the area. The system has now gone into production in South Africa and is being distributed by its inventor.

A large body of work emphasises the importance of pluralist decision-making perspectives in wildlife management to incorporate multiple views of constituents. At the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) core site in South Africa, however, the scientific knowledge of astronomers and ecologists dominates local knowledge of farmers and farmworkers in Black-backed jackal (Lupulella mesomelas) management. Local farming communities adjacent to the site, recently proclaimed a national park, experience this scientific knowledge as oppressive and insufficient for their environment. This paper explores the relevance of local knowledge among commercial farmers and farmworkers in Black-backed jackal management, based largely on their experience of addressing livestock predation. We argue that incorporating local knowledge will promote wider acceptance of science-based Black-backed jackal management strategies, decrease farming community members' sense of marginalisation from developments in their area and contribute to building trust among the social groups neighbouring the SKA core site, to the benefit of the astronomy project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife research and management often depend on safe and efficient capture methods. The inability to effectively capture elusive species can limit research and inhibit the ability to make informed management recommendations. Therefore, adapting established capture techniques to novel species and environments is essential in wildlife conservation. The Black-backed jackal Lupulella mesomelas is associated with substantial stock losses throughout southern Africa. Furthermore, this is a species that is both elusive and difficult to capture alive, especially in areas where they have been persecuted. Despite its notoriety as a damage-causing animal, data on this species are relatively sparse, primarily due to researchers' inability to capture a meaningful number of animals as a research sample. Helicopter net-gunning has been a successful tool for capturing several species of canids worldwide, but there are no practical records of its viability or utility for capturing Black-backed jackals. We attempted to capture jackals using helicopter-based net-gunning in a small stock farming area in South Africa. Our single-day pilot study in the southern Free State located four jackals and resulted in one capture. The more extensive primary investigation in the Eastern Cape located 20 animals of which 12 were captured. We compared capture efficacy and cost per unit animal using net-gunning to a padded leghold approach for the same area. Capture time per individual and time to catch the target study sample was lower than that for leghold trapping. The cost per unit animal was also lower compared to leghold trapping. Furthermore, under our study circumstances net-gunning was more cost effective and the study animals were subjected to restraint and the associated stress for a relatively shorter time than during leghold trapping. Therefore, net-gunning may be beneficial where synchrony of data collection for multiple jackals is important. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) are opportunistic mesopredators occupying a variety of ecosystems across South Africa (SA). They can move between protected areas (PAs) and surrounding human-dominated landscapes where they are prone to conflict with wildlife and livestock farmers and subsequently face high persecution rates. However, it remains unclear to what extent the anthropogenic landscape matrix in which PAs are embedded affects black-backed jackal occupancy within PAs at large spatial scales. Therefore, in this study, we explore how different sources of environmental variation inside and outside PAs influence the patterns of jackal's occupancy within PAs. We used 309 camera traps across 15 PAs in SA to respond to the following questions: (i) How does the landscape matrix surrounding PAs affect black-backed jackal occupancy compared to the landscape characteristics inside PAs? (ii) How does the presence of large carnivores affect black-backed jackal occupancy under these varying conditions of anthropogenic and PA landscape characteristics? When contrasting the effect of landscape variables and large predators at different spatial scales (fine-scale at site vs coarse-scale at reserve level), we found overwhelming support for tree cover at the camera site level as the main factor driving jackal occupancy with a higher occupancy in open areas. Our results suggest that neither anthropogenic context around PAs nor large predators influence the geographic variation in jackal's occupancy at large scales and that fine-scale habitat attributes are more important. Our study sheds light on the role of bottom-up over top-down mechanisms in driving jackals' distribution, confirming the ecological plasticity of this species to occupy different environments and suggesting that management of this species must be planned at local scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rabies is a zoonotic disease that remains endemic in large parts of southern Africa because of its persistence in wildlife and domestic dog vectors. The black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) is primarily the wildlife vector responsible for rabies outbreaks in northern parts of South Africa. Two trials were carried out to investigate antibody responses to the oral rabies vaccine Raboral V-RG® in black-backed jackals under captive and free-ranging conditions. In captive jackals 10/12 (83%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 52% – 98%), seroconverted after single oral vaccination. Nine captive jackals had protective antibody titres ( 0.5 IU/mL) at 4 weeks (median: 2.1 IU/mL; inter quartile range [IQR]: 0.6–5.7) and 10 jackals had at 12 weeks (median: 3.5 IU/mL; IQR: 1.5–8.3) and three maintained antibody titres for up to 48 weeks (median: 3.4 IU/mL; IQR: 2.0–6.3). Four sites were baited with Raboral V-RG® vaccine for wild jackals, using fishmeal polymer and chicken heads. Baits were distributed by hand or from vehicle at three sites in north-eastern South Africa, with an average baiting density of 4.4 baits/km2 and at one site in central South Africa, at 0.12 baits/km2. This resulted in protective antibody titres in 3/11 jackals (27%; 95% Cl: 6–61) trapped between 3 and 12 months after baiting in north-eastern South Africa, compared with 4/7 jackals (57%; 95% Cl: 18–90) trapped after 3–18 months in central South Africa. This study shows the potential utility of oral rabies vaccination for the control of wildlife-associated rabies in north-eastern and central South Africa, but extensive studies with wider distribution of bait are needed to assess its potential impact on rabies control in wild jackals.

Rabies is a zoonotic disease that remains endemic in large parts of southern Africa because of its persistence in wildlife and domestic dog vectors. The black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) is primarily the wildlife vector responsible for rabies outbreaks in northern parts of South Africa. Two trials were carried out to investigate antibody responses to the oral rabies vaccine Raboral V-RG® in black-backed jackals under captive and free-ranging conditions. In captive jackals 10/12 (83%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 52%-98%), seroconverted after single oral vaccination. Nine captive jackals had protective antibody titres (> 0.5 IU/mL) at 4 weeks (median: 2.1 IU/mL; inter quartile range [IQR]: 0.6-5.7) and 10 jackals had at 12 weeks (median: 3.5 IU/mL; IQR: 1.5-8.3) and three maintained antibody titres for up to 48 weeks (median: 3.4 IU/mL; IQR: 2.0-6.3). Four sites were baited with Raboral V-RG® vaccine for wild jackals, using fishmeal polymer and chicken heads. Baits were distributed by hand or from vehicle at three sites in north-eastern South Africa, with an average baiting density of 4.4 baits/km2 and at one site in central South Africa, at 0.12 baits/km2. This resulted in protective antibody titres in 3/11 jackals (27%; 95% Cl: 6-61) trapped between 3 and 12 months after baiting in north-eastern South Africa, compared with 4/7 jackals (57%; 95% Cl: 18--90) trapped after 3--18 months in central South Africa. This study shows the potential utility of oral rabies vaccination for the control of wildlife-associated rabies in north-eastern and central South Africa, but extensive studies with wider distribution of bait are needed to assess its potential impact on rabies control in wild jackals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rabies, a fatal and vaccine-preventable disease, is endemic throughout Africa. In 2016, a rabies outbreak occurred in black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) along the western boundary of Gauteng Province, South Africa. We investigated the possible drivers of the 2016 outbreak and established its origin. Using spatio-temporal locations of cases, we applied logistic regression and Geographic Information System techniques to investigate environmental covariates driving occurrences of emerging rabies cases in Gauteng Province. About 53.8% of laboratory-confirmed lyssaviruses in Gauteng Province in 2016 originated from jackals. Phylogenetic trees reconstructed from a partial region of the glycoprotein gene of these and historical rabies viruses (RABVs) demonstrated the lyssaviruses to be of canid origin with 97.7% nucleotide sequence similarity. The major cluster comprised jackal RABVs from the 2012 KwaZulu/Natal outbreak and the 2016 outbreak in Gauteng Province. The second cluster was composed of both jackal and dog RABVs. Both clusters correlated with independent RABV introductions into Gauteng by dogs and jackals, respectively. This study demonstrated an expansion of a jackal rabies cycle from north-west Province into Gauteng Province during the 2016 dry period, as jackals ranged widely in search for food resources leading to increased jackal-dog interactions, reminiscent of the intricate links of domestic and wildlife rabies cycles in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally damage causing animals, particularly mesopredators, are subjected to lethal control where they occur on small stock farms. This situation prevails in South Africa in relation to Black-backed jackals. However, despite their ubiquity, no attempt has been made to develop a repeatable, practical method to estimate Black-backed jackal population sizes. We estimated the Black-backed jackal population density on Telperion Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga Province using a combination of camera traps and established population estimation models (random encounter model (REM) and generalized random encounter model (gREM)) that do not require the individual identification of animals. Furthermore, we attempted to estimate all metrics for REM and gRem models exclusively from camera trap data and compared the estimates from these models, generated using GPS collar velocity metrics, to those based on home range metrics. We found that density estimates based on camera trap data combined with GPS velocity estimates returned the most plausible estimates of Black-backed jackal population. We suggest that using the method trialled in this study may present a relatively simple and practical way to estimate Black-backed jackal population density. The applicability of this method across a variety of landscapes should be trialled. If proved practicable, it would allow for consistent monitoring of Black-backed jackal populations using a repeatable density estimation method and may provide a basis for future management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Damage causing predators are globally the most common source of human wildlife conflict and involve a broad spectrum of taxa. Black-backed jackals are considered damage-causing mesopredators and are perceived to have a considerable effect on live-stock production in South Africa. However, information regarding the ecology of black-backed jackals on South African farmlands is limited. This study provides additional insight into jackal activity and space use patterns on small stock farmlands. A single jackal was collared as part of a larger study investigating the spatial and temporal interactions between caracals and jackals on a small stock farming area in the southern Free State, South Africa. The home range was estimated as 45.47 km2 (95% OUF AKDEc) with a core area of 1.59 km2 (50% OUF AKDEc). Activity varied throughout the night with peaks occurring at 01:00, 05:00, and 18:00. The average velocity was estimated at 0.6 ± 1.0 km per hour with a maximum of 5.0 km per hour. The mean distance travelled per day was 9.71 ± 2.45 km. The jackal displayed residency behaviour which represents an insight into the movements and activity of a territorial male jackal in a farmland environment. Habitat selection analysis suggests that the Besemkaree Koppies Shrubland was used for denning while the open Xhariep Karroid Grassland was the jackal's main foraging ground. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Feeding ecology of carnivores is integral to understanding their role in the ecosystem and the effect they have on their prey species. This study aims to better our understanding of Black-backed jackal feeding ecology in a fairly natural ecosystem, to contribute towards more informed depredation management in surrounding agri-ecosystems. Scat analysis was used to investigate the diet of Black-backed jackal inside a 5590 ha formal protected area, namely Maria Moroka Nature Reserve, which is surrounded by cattle and small stock farms. The six main prey groups identified from 334 scats were mice, springhare, antelope (c. 98% Springbok), hare, small carnivores and fruit. Rodents (mice mean monthly percentage occurrence 36%, springhare 31%) were utilized the most frequently, followed by antelope (Springbok 22% Occ; Blesbok 0.51%). The next most used prey group was small carnivores, present in 8% of scats. Hares and fruit, but also birds and invertebrates, were taken sporadically. No stock remains were found in the scats. Very similar results were obtained when volumetric contributions were calculated, resulting in mice (mean monthly contribution = 33% Vol; Importance Value, IV = 15.2), springhare (30% Vol; IV = 11.9) and antelope (24% Vol; IV = 10.0) being the most important prey items. Small carnivores (8% Vol) had an Importance Value of 1.2, and all other prey groups scored less than 0.4 IV. The wide variety of prey used, together with their monthly fluctuations (which for some groups could be coupled to availability) and prey switching between the three most important prey items mice, springhare and antelope, support opportunistic feeding behaviour by Black-backed jackal in the study area. The results also confirmed that Black-backed jackal does utilize Springbok as a major food source, and that this usage peaked during the two periods when Springbok lamb at Maria Moroka Nature Reserve. These periods do not only coincide with the Black-backed jackal pupping and dispersal seasons, but also with the two sheep lambing seasons in the central and southern Free State Province. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa has a long history of human wildlife-conflict; predators and some other wildlife kill and maim domestic and wild animals on livestock farms and wildlife ranches. Predation losses are mostly attributed to Black-backed jackals Lupulella mesomelas and Caracal Caracal caracal, but vagrant Dogs Canis familiaris also cause losses, specifically near human settlements. This paper explores the history of predation management strategies in South Africa over the last 35 years, looking at key advances in combating this problem and highlighting those areas that can be improved. During the previous century, predation management was governed with varied levels of official support by provincial ordinances. A process was started in July 1987 to strategise predation management; the National Problem Animal Policy Committee (NPAPC) was established in November 1989 and the Problem Animal Control Forum was founded in May 1993. Since 27 April 1994, progress was slowed down by major geopolitical changes in South Africa. The initiative of predation management was rekindled in March 2005 when the National Forum for Damage Causing Animals was convened to continue the activities that were initiated by the NPAPC. In 2006 momentum accelerated with the Ganzekraal Workshop. Lessons learnt abroad on coordinated predation management by the Federal Wildlife Services (USA) in 2010, were promoted in South Africa. In a separate process, PredSA was launched in November 2018. Predation Management South Africa (PMSA), a legal entity focusing on training, legislation, and communication, evolved in 2019 from the PMF. Strategies to mitigate predation losses were developed over decades, but few were implemented, often because of financial limitations. Several initiatives came and went in a way best characterised as an ebb and flow. Despite major advances, predation management remains fragmented and uncoordinated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scavenging animals often scatter skeletal remains of forensic interest and cause scavenging damage. This study aimed to identify scavenging animals in the peri-urban agricultural Highveld of South Africa, describe their scattering patterns, and the damage they cause to bone. Ten pig carcasses (Sus scrofa domesticus) (40–80 kg) were placed at the University of Pretoria's Mierjie Le Roux Experimental Farm (Highveld) in summer and winter. Motion-activated cameras recorded the scavenging. Scavenger species were identified and their behaviors, scattering pattern, and the damage they cause to bone were described. Scavenging was primarily by black-backed jackals; however, mongooses (slender, yellow, and water mongoose), Cape porcupine, and honey badger were also active. Remains were commonly scattered in two directions by jackals. The distance of scattering was heavily influenced by fencing. The remains were scattered within a maximum radius of 73.7 m. The remains were scavenged and skeletonized faster in summer. Jackals caused minimal damage to bone, isolated to superficial, nonspecific scores, furrows, and punctures. A few mongoose bone alterations were present as jagged gnaw marks on the angle of the mandible and gnawing of the vertebral spinous process. Cape porcupine bone damage included gnaw marks on the condyle of a femur and head of humerus, and destruction of the proximal and distal ends of a tibia. The described scattering pattern and bone modification patterns will assist in the recovery and analysis of scavenged remains found in peri-urban agricultural areas in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Domestic dogs are not native to sub-Saharan Africa, which may account for their susceptibility to Babesia rossi, of which endemic black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) are natural reservoirs. There is virtually no information on the occurrence of potentially pathogenic haemogregarines (e.g. Hepatozoon canis) or even rickettsial bacteria (e.g. Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp.) in indigenous canids in sub-Saharan Africa. Such organisms could pose a risk to domestic dogs, as well as to populations of endangered indigenous canid species. Results Genomic DNA extracted from blood samples taken from 126 free-ranging and 16 captive black-backed jackals was subjected to reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization assay; 82 (57.8%) specimens reacted only with the Ehrlichia/Anaplasma genera-specific probe. Full-length bacterial 16S rRNA gene of five of these specimens was cloned and the recombinants sequenced. The ten 16S rDNA sequences obtained were most closely related, with approximately 99% identity, to Anaplasma sp. South African Dog, various uncultured Anaplasma spp., as well as various Anaplasma phagocytophilum genotypes. Ninety-one specimens were screened for haemogregarines through PCR amplification using the 18S rRNA gene; 20 (21.9%) specimens reacted positively, of which 14 (15.4%) were confirmed positive for Hepatozoon genotypes from within H. canis. Two (2.2%) specimens were found positive for two different Hepatozoon genotypes. Conclusions Sequence analyses confirmed the presence of 16S rDNA sequences closely related to A. phagocytophilum and Anaplasma sp. South African Dog as well as two H. canis genotypes in both free-ranging and captive black-backed jackals. Distinguishing between closely related lineages may provide insight into differences in pathogenicity and virulence of various Anaplasma and H. canis genotypes. By building up a more comprehensive understanding of the range and diversity of the bacteria and eukaryotic organisms (piroplasms and haemogregarines) in the blood of indigenous canids, we may gain insight to such infections in these often-endangered species and the potential for horizontal transmission to and from domestic dogs via ticks where favourable conditions exist.

Integrated models combine multiple data types within a unified analysis to estimate species abundance and covariate effects. By sharing biological parameters, integrated models improve the accuracy and precision of estimates compared to separate analyses of individual data sets. We developed an integrated point process model to combine presence‐only and distance sampling data for estimation of spatially explicit abundance patterns. Simulations across a range of parameter values demonstrate that our model can recover estimates of biological covariates, but parameter accuracy and precision varied with the quantity of each data type. We applied our model to a case study of black‐backed jackals in the Masai Mara National Reserve, Kenya, to examine effects of spatially varying covariates on jackal abundance patterns. The model revealed that jackals were positively affected by anthropogenic disturbance on the landscape, with highest abundance estimated along the Reserve border near human activity. We found minimal effects of landscape cover, lion density, and distance to water source, suggesting that human use of the Reserve may be the biggest driver of jackal abundance patterns. Our integrated model expands the scope of ecological inference by taking advantage of widely available presence‐only data, while simultaneously leveraging richer, but typically limited, distance sampling data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs) are increasing globally and contributing to the decline of wildlife species. In sub-Saharan African countries such as Namibia, most of the suitable land has been or is currently being converted to crop and livestock production to support income or subsistence agriculture. These changes in land use often incur increased levels of HWCs because of crop and livestock depredation by native species. To quantify livestock predation risks posed by carnivores in Namibia, we deployed 30 trail cameras on a 6,500-ha farm in the Khomas region of Namibia from May to July 2018. We developed occupancy models to make inferences about the factors influencing presence and temporal activity patterns of 2 carnivore species. We found that livestock were most at risk from predation by black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) at night in agricultural areas and from brown hyenas (Parahyaena brunnea) at night in riparian habitats. Our results suggest that farmers can reduce HWC risks by implementing animal husbandry practices to include protecting livestock at night using methods such as nighttime corrals and livestock guarding dogs (C. lupus familiaris), or herders. Increasing livestock producer access to funding (i.e., individual donations or governmental agencies) to implement improved animal husbandry practices could reduce HWCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Populations of adaptable mesopredators are expanding globally where passive rewilding and natural recolonization are taking place, increasing the risk of conflict with remaining livestock farmers. We analysed data from two social surveys of farmers in the Karoo, South Africa, where black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) and caracals (Caracal caracal) have re-emerged as a threat to sheep farms in the context of falling agricultural employment and the expansion of natural areas. We show that irrespective of measurement approach, lethal control of mesopredators in this fragmented socio-economic landscape was associated with increased livestock losses the following year. Terrain ruggedness was positively, and number of farmworkers negatively, associated with livestock losses. Our study provides further evidence that lethal control of mesopredators in this context is probably counter-productive and supports calls to develop, share and financially support a range of non-lethal methods to protect livestock, especially where natural recolonization of mesopredators is occurring. A graphical abstract can be found in Electronic supplementary material. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background The pathology of spirocercosis, a disease caused by the infestation of carnivores with the nematode Spirocerca lupi, has been extensively described in domestic dogs and coyotes. However, it has not been described in wild carnivores in South Africa. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether black-backed jackals are a host for Spirocerca species and to provide a detailed description of the associated pathology. Jackals were also stratified according to age and the Spirocerca species recovered were characterized using molecular techniques. Methods Standard necropsies were performed on routinely culled jackals from three of the nine provinces of South Africa during the period June 2012 to February 2013. Jackals were screened for the presence of pathognomonic Spirocerca-induced lesions and for evidence of aberrant migration. Relevant samples were submitted for histopathology and collected larvae were genotyped at nine microsatellite loci. Results Spirocerca lupi-associated aortic lesions were found in 16 of 93 (17%) black-backed jackals. Of these, four (25%) were associated with S. lupi larvae. Genotyping of the larvae revealed amplification of all nine loci that amplified dog-derived S. lupi, with the same level of polymorphism in the allele size ranges. Only 1 of 93 jackals had an esophageal nodule with concurrent S. lupi-induced aortic aneurysms. The single esophageal nodule found did not contain adult nematodes, nor did it communicate with the esophageal lumen. None of the jackals that were examined had macroscopically evident spondylitis, which is frequently reported in the dog. Histopathology of the S. lupi-induced aortic lesions in the jackal revealed replacement of elastic and smooth muscle fibers by fibrous connective tissue. In cases where inflammation was present, the inflammatory infiltrate consisted predominantly of eosinophils. The single esophageal nodule histologically resembled the early inflammatory nodule described in dogs and consisted of fibrous connective tissue, multifocal accumulation of lymphocytes, plasma cells and rare hemosiderin-laden macrophages. Conclusions These lesions suggest that the life cycle of S. lupi may not or only rarely be completed in jackals. A possible explanation might be that jackals are relatively resistant to developing significant pathology associated with S. lupi-infection. However, before any conclusions can be drawn, many more jackals, including those that die naturally will have to be investigated for evidence of S. lupi infection.

We radio‐tracked 15 black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) from 8 adjacent family groups on Benfontein Game Farm (i.e., Benfontein) in South Africa to investigate their movement patterns and social organization. Jackal family groups consisted of mated pairs (alphas), 0–3 nonbreeding adults (betas), and pups, depending on the season. Mean (±SE) home‐range size of alphas (9.4 ± 1.2 km2, n = 6) did not differ (P = 0.766) from betas (9.8 ± 0.7 km2, n = 8). Most beta jackals (8 of 10) remained philopatric on Benfontein, apparently because of the high density of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis), their preferred prey. Three of 5 alphas and all 8 betas went on extraterritorial forays (i.e., forays). Generally, betas spent more of their active time on forays (2–20% of time) than alphas (0–3%; P = 0.048), and betas went farther on forays (2–8 km) than alphas (2–3 km; P = 0.003). The number of forays differed (P < 0.001) among seasons; most forays occurred during summer (64%) when jackals visited neighboring livestock farms, apparently to predate on domestic sheep. Overall, our results indicate forays by jackals are affected by social status, seasonal availability of preferred prey, and the reproductive cycle of jackals. To reduce jackal predation on livestock farms near reserves, we recommend that preventative measures (e.g., use of herders, jackal control activities) be increased during summer when jackals are most likely to travel outside reserves. © 2019 The Wildlife Society. On a reserve in South Africa, forays by black‐backed jackals were affected by social status, seasonal availability of preferred prey, and the reproductive cycle of jackals. We recommend several preventative measures to reduce jackal predation on livestock farms near reserves, based on the preferred prey of jackals and the periods when jackals are most likely to travel outside of reserves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive farming is an important source of food and fibre and often the only viable land use in the more arid regions of the globe. Yet, land use transformation for livestock grazing can lead to natural habitat degradation and fragmentation, identified as the main threats to biodiversity worldwide. Understanding which species are "winners" (i.e. species with a higher relative abundance index on farmland than protected area) and "losers" (i.e. species that have been extirpated or have a lower relative abundance index on farmland) in farming landscapes is crucial for the global sustainability of food production and biodiversity conservation. We used camera traps across 332 locations, over 23,796 trap nights to compare species richness and several aspects of community diversity (evenness, dominance, functional diversity and community structure) on 22 extensive small-livestock farms and a nearby protected area in the semi-arid region of the Karoo, South Africa. Species richness was not significantly different between the two land uses, but there were important differences in community structure and composition. Large carnivores were the "losers" of extensive livestock farming. Farmland displayed a lower effective number of species and functional diversity and a higher dominance than the protected area. The latter had a positive influence on the presence of large mammals and on the relative abundance of the region's main mesopredator, the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas). Contrary to consensus, extensive small-livestock farming may be beneficial to some species and may therefore represent an important opportunity for biodiversity conservation outside of formally protected areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various species of Echinococcus have been described in the past from wild mammals of sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is only recently, that a few isolates have become available for molecular identification; therefore, the involvement of wildlife in the lifecycles of the various cryptic species within Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato is still only partially known. A preliminary survey was undertaken in Etosha National Park, Namibia, from August to October 2012. Faecal samples were obtained from 34 individual wild carnivores, and metacestodes were collected from carcasses of 18 culled herbivores. Single eggs and metacestode tissue were lysed and identified from sequences of the mitochondrial nad1 gene. In case of metacestodes, the cox1 gene was additionally sequenced and haplotype networks were constructed. Echinococcus equinus was found in lions (4 of 6), black-backed jackals (2 of 7) and Burchell's zebras (11 of 12). The frequency of this parasite in the absence of domestic dogs, horses and donkeys strongly indicates its transmission in a wildlife cycle. Further, a variety of sequences were obtained from eggs and cysticerci from lions, cheetahs, caracals, spotted hyenas and oryx, which most closely clustered with species of Taenia. Only 3 of them, 2 of lion and 1 of hyena origin, could be allocated to Hydatigera (=Taenia) taeniaeformis (lion), Taenia regis (lions and oryx) and Taenia cf. crocutae (spotted hyena and oryx).

Jackals (Canis mesomelas) and caracals (Caracal caracal) are considered major predators of small livestock on farms across South Africa, with both species being subjected to lethal control. Lethal management (i.e. culling) can result in differential responses in the population dynamics and demography of mesopredators. We examined the potential impacts that high population turnover, due to lethal management, may have on the genetic structure and diversity of jackal and caracal populations. We included mitochondrial markers to assess the movement of maternal lineages across the landscape as a proxy for dispersal. We further employed variable microsatellite markers to quantify levels of genetic diversity and relatedness among individuals. We found that high population turnover in both species may promote compensatory dispersal, which is consistent with the high levels of genetic diversity observed in both species. Structure analysis showed that the jackal population was comprised of 2 genetic clusters, while all the caracals belonged to a single nuclear genetic cluster. The weak differentiation between the jackal clusters (F ST = 0.08), and the high level of inbreeding (F IS = 0.112) in the Central Karoo cluster, suggests that they likely represent demic populations. These data can be used as a baseline for ongoing population monitoring. Temporal monitoring of wildlife populations that are exposed to lethal management is important for a better understanding of the long-term effects on species ecology and survival success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conflict between predators and small-livestock farmers is a global phenomenon adversely impacting the preservation of wildlife, the well-being of livestock and human livelihoods. Such conflict is pervasive in the Karoo region of South Africa but its contemporary history and various causes remain poorly understood. In this study, we interviewed 77 small-livestock farmers in the Central Karoo between July 2014 and March 2015 to (1) assess the spatio-temporal distribution and severity of the reported predation problems with the main regional predators of livestock (black-backed jackal, caracal and baboon) and (2) describe the perceived reasons for changes in predator numbers. Farmers reported that serious predation problems have increased since the 1990s for all three predators. Jackal predation appears to have re-emerged, particularly since the 2000s, while baboon predation seems to have escalated rapidly since 2014 for select farmers. Farms with more rugged terrain were more likely to experience serious problems with baboons and caracal but ruggedness did not predict the year of onset of problems. Farmers perceive predator numbers to be increasing and attribute this trend to declining government support for predator management, changes in farming practices and the associated increase in suitable predator habitat, from which they can recolonise commercial farms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: The use of land for pastoralism is often associated with a reduction in the diversity and abundance of wildlife and influences conflict between farmers and predators worldwide. We explored differences in the diversity and relative abundance of medium and large animals on farmlands and a nearby protected area and compared these differences to prey consumed by 3 sympatric predators (black‐backed jackal [Canis mesomelas], caracal [Caracal caracal], and leopard [Panthera pardus]) in the Karoo region of South Africa. All 3 predators, but especially jackals and caracals, are a source of conflict with small‐stock farmers, many of whom believe that predators use the protected area as a base for raiding farmland. We determined predator diets using 657 scats collected on both land uses in subsequent years. Domestic ungulates dominated the farming landscape and comprised the bulk of prey in the scats of jackals and caracals as determined by the frequency of occurrence (42% and 25%, respectively), percent volume (47% and 32%, respectively), and ingested biomass. By contrast jackals and caracals in the reserve fed primarily on fruits and micromammals, respectively, with a lower ingested biomass of mammalian prey. No domestic sheep were in any of the scats in the reserve. We found leopard scats only in the reserve and they mostly contained wild ungulates. Dietary niche breadth and overlap were higher on farms than in the reserve and were attributed to the high consumption of domestic livestock by jackal and caracal. Dietary overlap between medium‐sized predators and leopards was small. Caracals on farms and caracals and jackals in the reserve showed strong prey preference for wild mammals, whereas jackals on farms showed prey preference for goats and sheep over similar‐sized wild mammals. Leopards showed preference for bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus) and mountain‐dwelling antelopes but consumed baboons (Papio ursinus) according to availability. Together these results fill a gap in our knowledge about jackal and caracal diets on farmland and dietary niche relationships between 3 sympatric predators in conflict with small‐stock farmers in the semi‐arid regions of South Africa. In terms of management, our results show that it is crucial that farmers protect their livestock from predators, even on farms where wild prey are abundant because of jackals' preference for sheep and goats over similar‐sized wild mammals. © 2017 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Apex predators can have considerable impacts on meso-carnivore diets, through competition or facilitation. Facilitation occurs when smaller predators consume carrion created by larger predators, especially large-bodied prey species normally inaccessible to meso-carnivores. In contrast, apex predators can also negatively affect meso-carnivore consumption of important resources through competitive interactions. Thus, predicting meso-carnivore responses to trophic structure changes (i.e. apex predator extirpation or reintroduction) is often difficult. We investigated stable carbon and nitrogen isotope niche breadths of black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) in response to the reintroduction of an apex predator, the African lion (Panthera leo), to the Karoo National Park, South Africa. Jackal faecal isotopic niche widths were larger in post-lion than pre-lion samples, indicating a niche expansion to include pureC3- and C4-based food sources when lions were present. Most prey items of this nature in the study area are large-bodied ungulates. Our results agree with results of traditional scat analysis, which showed that prey species >92 kg were consumed more often after the lion reintroduction. Stable isotope data from carnivore faeces are effective for tracking responses of wildlife to changing ecological conditions, providing an alternative source of information about changes in community structure brought about by management interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Host traits and environmental factors drive the natural variation in gut microbiota, and disruption in homeostasis can cause infections and chronic diseases. African wildlife is increasingly facing human-induced agricultural habitats, which also amplifies the contact probability with livestock with unknown consequences for wildlife gut microbiotas and the risk of transmission of potentially pathogenic bacteria. We applied high-throughput sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA genes and microsatellite genotyping to investigate the impact of host traits and habitat use on the gut microbiotas of black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas). This abundant carnivore inhabits livestock and game farms in central Namibia and is often persecuted as pathogen reservoir and vector. We further compared the gut microbiotas of black-backed jackals to other wild and domestic carnivores, herbivores and an omnivore, to disentangle the effects of environment, host species and dietary preference. In black-backed jackals, intrinsic host traits had a stronger impact in shaping the host-bacteria relationship than environmental factors. Nevertheless, the abundance of bacterial operational taxonomic units (OTUs) differed in individuals from livestock and game farms for specific bacterial genera such as Lactobacillus and Clostridium. We found, however, no evidence that black-backed jackals harbour abnormal levels of OTUs related to potential bacterial pathogens or that livestock farming has a negative impact on their health. We present here the first study investigating simultaneously the impact of host traits and environmental factors on gut microbiotas of a wildlife carnivore that occurs in a human-modified habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spirocerca lupi is a parasitic nematode that causes spirocercosis predominantly in domestic dogs. Spirocerca lupi nematode samples were collected from four regions around South Africa and analyzed to compare the genetic diversity among the regions. A total of 56 S. lupi nematodes were obtained by necropsy from domestic dogs and wild black-backed jackals ( Canis mesomelas ). Sixteen different haplotypes of cox1 were identified some of which are shared between regions as well as with black-backed jackal. The genetic similarity between S. lupi in domestic dogs and black-backed jackals indicates transmission between these canid species and may have potential conservation implications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The pathology of spirocercosis, a disease caused by the infestation of carnivores with the nematode Spirocerca lupi, has been extensively described in domestic dogs and coyotes. However, it has not been described in wild carnivores in South Africa. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether black-backed jackals are a host for Spirocerca species and to provide a detailed description of the associated pathology. Jackals were also stratified according to age and the Spirocerca species recovered were characterized using molecular techniques. Methods: Standard necropsies were performed on routinely culled jackals from three of the nine provinces of South Africa during the period June 2012 to February 2013. Jackals were screened for the presence of pathognomonic Spirocerca-induced lesions and for evidence of aberrant migration. Relevant samples were submitted for histopathology and collected larvae were genotyped at nine microsatellite loci. Results: Spirocerca lupi-associated aortic lesions were found in 16 of 93 (17%) black-backed jackals. Of these, four (25%) were associated with S. lupi larvae. Genotyping of the larvae revealed amplification of all nine loci that amplified dog-derived S. lupi, with the same level of polymorphism in the allele size ranges. Only 1 of 93 jackals had an esophageal nodule with concurrent S. lupi-induced aortic aneurysms. The single esophageal nodule found did not contain adult nematodes, nor did it communicate with the esophageal lumen. None of the jackals that were examined had macroscopically evident spondylitis, which is frequently reported in the dog. Histopathology of the S. lupi-induced aortic lesions in the jackal revealed replacement of elastic and smooth muscle fibers by fibrous connective tissue. In cases where inflammation was present, the inflammatory infiltrate consisted predominantly of eosinophils. The single esophageal nodule histologically resembled the early inflammatory nodule described in dogs and consisted of fibrous connective tissue, multifocal accumulation of lymphocytes, plasma cells and rare hemosiderin-laden macrophages. Conclusions: These lesions suggest that the life cycle of S. lupi may not or only rarely be completed in jackals. A possible explanation might be that jackals are relatively resistant to developing significant pathology associated with S. lupi-infection. However, before any conclusions can be drawn, many more jackals, including those that die naturally will have to be investigated for evidence of S. lupi infection . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Babesia rossi, which is transmitted by Haemaphysalis spp. and is highly virulent to domestic dogs, occurs only in sub-Saharan Africa. Since dogs are not native to the region, it has been postulated that the natural host of B. rossi is an indigenous African canid. Although various attempts at artificial infection indicated that black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) could become subclinically infected with B. rossi, data on occurrence of B. rossi in free-ranging jackals was lacking. A long-term behaviour study in which free-ranging black-backed jackals were radio-collared offered the opportunity of collecting blood specimens from a large number of free-ranging jackals. Methods: Genomic DNA was extracted from the EDTA blood samples (n = 107). PCR products were subjected to Reverse Line Blot hybridization using Theileria and Babesia genera-specific as well as 28 species-specific oligonucleotide probes, including Babesia canis, Babesia rossi, Babesia vogeli and Babesia gibsoni. The near full-length parasite 18S rRNA gene was amplified from two selected samples (free-ranging jackals), cloned and a total of six recombinants were sequenced. Results: Of 91 free-ranging jackals, 77 (84.6%) reacted with the Babesia genus-specific probe; 27 (29.7%) also reacted with the B. rossi probe. Of 16 captive jackals, 6 (37.5%) reacted with the B. rossi probe, while one further sample reacted with the Babesia genus-specific probe only. After cloning, 6 recombinants yielded identical sequences identical to that of B. rossi (L19079) and differing by 2 base pairs from B. rossi (DQ111760) in GenBank. The observed sequence similarities were confirmed by phylogenetic analyses using neighbour joining and maximum parsimony. Conclusions: Black-backed jackals are natural hosts of B. rossi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carnivores frequently come into conflict with humans in agricultural and livestock-producing areas around the world. Understanding their fidelity and dispersal patterns in response to food availability is therefore important given the effort invested in conflict mitigation strategies. In this study, we investigated the influence of clumped and abundant sources of carrion on the genetic diversity of the black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas within six private game farms in the North-West and Gauteng provinces of South Africa. It is predicted that clumped and abundant sources of carrion will increase immigration and thus genetic diversity in the local subpopulation. By quantifying the variability in microsatellite loci in black-backed jackals subjected to artificially increased carrion availability, and comparing them with individuals from control sites, we were able to describe patterns of historic gene flow within the total sampled population. The results of this investigation indicate that clumped and abundant sources of carrion promote genetic structuring ( FST = 0.0302) which implies a lack of gene flow and a degree of isolation. Genetic artefacts of three populations could be identified through Bayesian clustering analysis of individuals based on their genetic identity. Individuals sampled from the two supplementary feeding sites could be assigned to one of two ancestral populations with an average population assignment of 69 and 82%, while individuals from the remaining four control sites, originate from a third population with percentage assignments of 63%, 46%, 53% and 42%. It is therefore likely that clumped and abundant sources of carrion in the agricultural landscape of South Africa can affect the population dynamics of the black-backed jackal and result in subpopulations with limited migration and dispersal when compared with the total population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manipulation of the reproductive activity of jackals is dependent on a thorough understanding of the reproductive biology of this species. This study describes seasonal morphological changes in the adult testis of the black-backed jackal in relation to the immunoexpression of the basement membrane marker, laminin and the cytoskeletal proteins, cytokeratin, smooth muscle actin and vimentin. Laminin was immunolocalized in basement membranes surrounding seminiferous tubules, as well as in basement membranes associated with Leydig, peritubular myoid and vascular smooth muscle cells. Scalloped basement membranes enclosed seminiferous tubules in regressing testes. The seminiferous epithelium and interstitial tissue in all animals studied were cytokeratin immunonegative. Smooth muscle actin was demonstrated in vascular smooth muscle cells, as well as in peritubular myoid cells encircling seminiferous tubules. Vimentin immunoreactivity was exhibited in the cytoplasm of Sertoli cells, Leydig cells, vascular endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells and fibrocytes. Vimentin immunostaining in Sertoli, Leydig and peritubular myoid cells varied depending on the functional state of the testis. The results of the study have shown that dramatic seasonal histological changes occur in the testes of the jackal. In addition, the use of immunohistochemistry accentuates these morphological changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The foraging efficiency of two sympatric species of jackals, silver-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) and golden jackals (Canis aureus), was studied in the Ngorongoro crater from July 2014 through May 2015. The focal animal observation method was used and individuals of both species were followed as they foraged from morning to evening. Observations of individuals of both jackal species were made from a vehicle using binoculars and a spotting scope. Three major parameters were used for determination of foraging efficiency: distance travelled while foraging, time spent foraging, and amount of food secured in foraging period. The Mann–Whitney U test showed no significant difference (P>0.05) in distance travelled per unit time of foraging between the two species in the dry and wet seasons, respectively. Golden jackals secured a significantly higher amount of food than the silver-backed jackals in the wet season (Mann–Whitney U test, P<0.05, U=1035.4). Hunting of prey larger than Thomson’s gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii) fawns was not common. Both species mainly fed on smaller prey such as invertebrates and rodents and scavenged opportunistically. Efficient foraging is crucial for both jackal species especially during their breeding season when they are provisioning dependent pups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The conflict between predators and livestock farmers is a threat to carnivore conservation. Livestock guarding dogs are promoted as a non-lethal, environmentally friendly method to mitigate this conflict. As part of a farmer–carnivore conflict mitigation programme, the Cheetah Conservation Fund breeds Anatolian shepherd (also known as Kangal) dogs to protect livestock from predators. During 2009–2010 we interviewed 53 commercial and 20 subsistence Namibian farmers that are using 83 such dogs. Fewer commercial and subsistence farmers reported livestock losses to predators during the most recent year of guarding-dog use compared to the year before dogs were introduced. All subsistence farmers, but not all commercial farmers, ceased killing predators during the most recent year of guarding-dog use. All farmers ceased killing cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and leopard Panthera pardus during this year, and one dog killed a single cheetah. Conversely, dogs and farmers killed more black-backed jackals Canis mesomelas between them in the survey year than the farmers reported killing in the year before acquiring dogs. Two of the dogs reportedly killed non-target carnivore species, and 15 killed prey species. Thus our results challenge the categorization of livestock guarding dogs as a non-lethal conflict mitigation method. We suggest that the conservation status and body size of wild carnivores relative to the size of the guarding dogs be considered before introducing dogs to protect livestock. Additionally, corrective training for dogs that chase or kill non-target species should be implemented, especially where farmers value these species or where non-target species are threatened. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas Schreber, 1775) are one of the most commonly implicated conflict animals on farming areas in southern Africa. To determine the diet of black-backed jackals, and to understand their possible predation effects on domestic livestock, a study was conducted using faecal analyses in the Nottingham Road/Mooi River agricultural areas, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We collected and analysed 154 scat samples from two seasons (summer and winter). Jackals consumed 17-19 taxa per season, including a number of rodents and shrews, domestic and wild ungulates, birds, insects, reptiles, and grass. Rodents were the most consumed prey item seasonally (relative percentage of occurrence: 54-56.3%), indicating that they were the main food source of black-backed jackals. Another important food source was domestic livestock comprising between 19.7% (winter) and 16.3% (summer) seasonally. Black-backed jackals consumed a wide range of prey categories during both seasons; however, we recorded a slightly broader prey diversity during the summer period. A large spectrum of prey species in the diet of jackal confirmed the opportunistic and generalist nature of the species. Domestic stock constituted an important food source in the diet of black-backed jackal in this modified agricultural landscape. Therefore, appropriate management measures are needed to avoid growing human-wildlife conflict in agricultural farmlands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) are an abundant mesopredator on farmlands (croplands and rangelands) across South Africa. Given their adaptability in a changing anthropogenic landscape, knowledge of spatial movements can provide important ecological information on the species. We captured, collared and monitored five black-backed jackals in the Midlands of KwaZulu-Natal to determine their home range and habitat use in farmlands. The 95% fixed kernel (95% FK) home range sizes were large, showing a marked seasonal variation in movement. One adult male dispersed 150 km over two seasons (winter and spring) and thereafter settled into a home range that it maintained. Transient home ranges of males and juveniles were larger than resident home ranges. The mean resident home ranges (95% FK) across seasons for adult males, adult female and juvenile males were 11.4 ± 4.3 km2, 5.6 ± 0.36 km2and 2.15 ± 0.45 km2, respectively. The mean transient home ranges (95% FK) of all the seasons for adult and juvenile males were 1 181.93 ± 575.81 km2and 104.27 ± 35.64 km2, respectively. Adult jackal preferred croplands in spring, summer and autumn but avoided croplands in winter. Variable habitat use and large home ranges in our study confirmed the species’ ability to adapt to agricultural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Lethal carnivore management, aimed at reducing carnivore impacts, is a global phenomenon threatening the persistence of many carnivores. Black-backed jackals Canis mesomelas, the dominant cause of livestock predation in southern Africa, are widely hunted to reduce livestock predation. Despite centuries of lethal management, jackals persist. Smaller canids, like jackals, are highly adaptable and display variable responses to mortality sources, which may affect management outcomes., The effects of killing carnivores will depend on their behaviour, social organization, reproduction and dispersal patterns. We predicted that hunted jackals will alter demographic and reproductive patterns to compensate for increased mortality. Here, we collected demographic and reproductive information from harvested jackals and compared it between continually hunted (farms) and unmanaged populations (reserves)., The removal of jackals from farms results in a decrease in median age from 5-6 years (reserves) to 2-3 years (farms). Hunting also changed the age structure of jackal populations from a stable population to an expanding population. This may be ascribed to the compensatory immigration of individuals from neighbouring unmanaged areas, suggesting the formation of a source-sink system. Unmanaged areas may act as source populations exporting young, dispersing individuals to hunted areas which may act as sinks. This is likely driven by disruptions in the normal, mutually exclusive territorial system resulting in low densities of conspecifics on farms., The low density of conspecifics allows younger individuals that would be socially precluded from reproducing to reproduce. Jackals on farms compensated for increased mortality by increasing the pregnancy rate of young individuals and increasing the litter size at younger ages, thereby increasing reproductive output., Synthesis and applications. The lethal management of predators is the prevailing strategy to reduce livestock predation. However, the highly adaptable nature of jackals and the combination of compensatory mechanisms such as increased reproduction and potential for immigration allow these predators to persist in the face of severe anthropogenic mortality, possibly through the formation of a source-sink system. These compensatory processes will continue to counter population management actions as long as recruitment from unmanaged areas persists. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Generalist predators characteristically switch prey in response to resource pulses. Ungulate population reinforcement through translocation provides stressed and vulnerable prey, and apex predator reintroduction provides carrion, both resources that can be exploited by generalist predators. We investigated the dietary response of black-backed jackal to two management interventions in the Karoo National Park, South Africa, namely the reinforcement of the springbok population, and then the reintroduction of lions. By analysing jackal diets from scats collected before and after each management intervention, we show that the relative per cent occurrence and biomass consumed of springbok increased in the diet following the population reinforcement of springbok. In contrast, large ungulates were more prevalent in the diet following apex predator reintroduction. These results suggest that jackals took advantage of a potentially vulnerable abundant springbok population following their population reinforcement, and then switched to foraging on carrion provided by reintroduced lions. These results provide insights into the dietary response of a generalist mesopredator to management interventions. A key lesson from the study is that the diet of generalist predators is context-dependent and should be interpreted in that light. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite continued efforts to eradicate black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas), they are considered an abundant meso-predator on agricultural land across South Africa, resulting in ongoing human-wildlife conflict and concern for farmers and wildlife managers. We conducted a questionnaire survey and semi-formal interviews with farmers throughout KwaZulu-Natal, examining farmers' livestock husbandry, land-use changes and perspectives towards jackals as a perceived threat to livestock. Many (75%) respondents acknowledged expanding agricultural activities on their farmlands since the onset of their farming careers. However, the perception was that these changes placed little pressure on mesopredators as farmers reported frequent daily (25%) and weekly (31%) sightings of jackal, and regular predation on livestock (72%). Some landowners (31%) reported between one and five livestock losses annually and suggest that mitigation strategies to prevent livestock losses are in place. Farmers suggested the increasing intensity in agricultural practices provided a greater food source for jackals allowing them to thrive in expanding agricultural conditions and, in some circumstances, farmers admitted to possibly being a cause through poor disposal techniques for dead animals. Feedback from farmers emphasized the importance of having collaboration between farmers to control jackal predation and reduce human-wildlife conflict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vulture restaurants are used worldwide as a conservation tool to provide threatened vultures with a source of supplementary carrion free from anthropogenic contaminants such as poisons and veterinary drugs. While the impacts of supplementary feeding sites on ecosystem and scavenging community dynamics have been investigated in Europe, no information is currently available for southern Africa. This study presents evidence that providing supplementary carrion for vultures stimulated an increase in local abundance of two species of mammalian carnivores, the brown hyaena (Hyaena brunnea) and the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas). These findings require that the wider impacts of providing supplementary carrion for conserving threatened species are fully investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]