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This study investigates how the relationship between farmers and buyers affects the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) in the vegetable sector in Chile. Specifically, we focus on the dyadic relationships between farmers and different types of buyers, including besides lead firms, intermediaries, and wholesalers, which have received little attention in the scientific literature. Our analysis focuses on formal and informal contracts as governance forms between farmers and buyers, and explores the correlation between contract provisions (e.g., quality, quantity, and the provision of services), relationship attributes (i.e., satisfaction, trust, and opportunism) and adoption of SAPs. We gathered survey data from 352 vegetable farmers in Chile and employed analysis of variance and logit modeling for our analysis. Our findings indicate that small-scale farmers primarily engage with intermediaries using informal contracts, while medium-scale farmers trade with wholesalers through spot markets, and large-scale farmers with lead firms using formal contracts. We also found that farmers who traded through informal contracts, mainly with intermediaries, reported greater satisfaction in the farmer-buyer relationship than farmers trading through formal contracts. However, farmers engaging in informal contracts were less likely to adopt SAPs than farmers trading through formal contracts. Our results suggest that the governance form (contracts or spot market) adopted for the relationship between farmers and buyers influences the adoption of SAPs, while the impact of relationship attributes on SAP adoption is less clear. A deeper understanding of buyers and their relationship with farmers is essential to enhance policies encouraging SAP adoption in regional and local fresh food supply chains. [EconLit Citations: Q13, Q15, Q56].

Despite the purposeful governmental programs, agricultural cooperation in Russia is not developing - on the contrary, the number of cooperatives has been continuously declining. This study investigates the reasons for farmers' refusal to join cooperatives. A prepared questionnaire was distributed in one of the Russian regions (the Republic of Tatarstan), and the collected data were analyzed via the cross tabulation method and logit analysis. According to the study results, the major reasons for not cooperating are as follows: respondent farmers lack the experience of cooperation, they have problems trusting each other, they are not socially active in their communities, and they rarely have a higher education. The study results recommend that the Ministry of Agriculture, willing to develop agricultural cooperation, pay special attention to educating farmers in terms of cooperation. Particular work should be done in teaching farmers to work in groups, trust each other, and organize systems of cooperative ventures in a way that would exclude cheating and free-riding behavior on the parts of both the cooperative members and the leaders. Stimulating social activities among farmers in rural areas might also increase cooperation. In addition, there is a need for agricultural consulting services offering high quality educational courses explaining the advantages of cooperatives and profits that they may provide to the members.

The objective of this study was to examine social networks in dairy value chains (DVCs) in Kenya and understand how DVC actors' power relationships and trust influence their behaviour regarding milk quality. We conducted a stakeholder analysis using the Net-Map tool in Laikipia, Nakuru and Nyandarua counties in Kenya. VisuaLyzer software was used to analyse the social networks. Thematic content analysis of the discussions, recorded during the mapping exercise, was undertaken using ATLAS.ti. Formal DVC had more actors and dense social networks characterised by vertical and horizontal integration, high levels of power asymmetries between actors, limited trust and short-term contractual arrangements. Informal DVC was characterised by fewer actors and less dense social networks, low levels of power asymmetries between actors and a high level of trust due to the existence of reciprocal personal relationships. Milk was perceived to be of higher quality in the formal value chain reflecting top-down enforcement of milk standards, bottom-up collective action, power asymmetries and contractual relationships. Poor milk quality management in the informal DVC underscores the need for powerful actors, e.g. regulatory agencies, and buyers such as processors, to influence other DVC actors' behavioural change. Understanding and leveraging DVC social networks and actors' power and addressing power asymmetries and enhancing trust between actors will increase compliance with milk quality standards. There is an urgent imperative to design policies and interventions which empower DVC actors, by providing economic incentives, enhancing their skills and knowledge and their access to infrastructure which facilitates milk quality improvement.

The objective of this study was to examine social networks in dairy value chains (DVCs) in Kenya and understand how DVC actors’ power relationships and trust influence their behaviour regarding milk quality. We conducted a stakeholder analysis using the Net-Map tool in Laikipia, Nakuru and Nyandarua counties in Kenya. VisuaLyzer software was used to analyse the social networks. Thematic content analysis of the discussions, recorded during the mapping exercise, was undertaken using ATLAS.ti. Formal DVC had more actors and dense social networks characterised by vertical and horizontal integration, high levels of power asymmetries between actors, limited trust and short-term contractual arrangements. Informal DVC was characterised by fewer actors and less dense social networks, low levels of power asymmetries between actors and a high level of trust due to the existence of reciprocal personal relationships. Milk was perceived to be of higher quality in the formal value chain reflecting top-down enforcement of milk standards, bottom-up collective action, power asymmetries and contractual relationships. Poor milk quality management in the informal DVC underscores the need for powerful actors, e.g. regulatory agencies, and buyers such as processors, to influence other DVC actors’ behavioural change. Understanding and leveraging DVC social networks and actors’ power and addressing power asymmetries and enhancing trust between actors will increase compliance with milk quality standards. There is an urgent imperative to design policies and interventions which empower DVC actors, by providing economic incentives, enhancing their skills and knowledge and their access to infrastructure which facilitates milk quality improvement.

Motivation: Most transaction cost economic frameworks, commonly used to examine and explain the co-ordination of agricultural transactions, use a linear approach for a single product transaction. This ignores the concurrence of multiple transactions by smallholder farmers in developing countries. Purpose: This study aims to understand co-ordination among multiple product transactions by smallholder farmers and to identify ways to remove impediments to market participation. It develops an adapted transaction cost framework, considering contract types and forms of market participation as building blocks for co-ordination structures. The framework was applied to explain co-ordination structures between smallholders and buyers of cotton and cereals in southern Mali. Methods and approach: To make the framework operational, we did the following: (1) selected transaction characteristics; (2) elaborated benchmarks to describe the intensity of transactions; (3) identified co-ordination structures; and (4) scored the intensity of transactions. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Findings: The majority of farmers grew cotton and sold it to a parastatal company, the sole buyer, that also supported the provision of inputs. Inputs were used to grow not only cotton, but also cereals. Most farmers sold cereals on spot markets to collectors and traders. Using different structures allowed smallholders to obtain inputs and services, to pursue different income sources over the year, and to balance flexibility and security. Policy implications: Collective organizations of smallholder farmers should be supported to improve their financial and managerial capacities to allow them to co-ordinate better with buyers and input suppliers. Institutional innovations to better balance risks for smallholders and buyers deserve consideration. These innovations include crop insurance, long-term credit, and warehouse receipts.

Despite the purposeful governmental programs, agricultural cooperation in Russia is not developing—on the contrary, the number of cooperatives has been continuously declining. This study investigates the reasons for farmers' refusal to join cooperatives. A prepared questionnaire was distributed in one of the Russian regions (the Republic of Tatarstan), and the collected data were analyzed via the cross tabulation method and logit analysis. According to the study results, the major reasons for not cooperating are as follows: respondent farmers lack the experience of cooperation, they have problems trusting each other, they are not socially active in their communities, and they rarely have a higher education. The study results recommend that the Ministry of Agriculture, willing to develop agricultural cooperation, pay special attention to educating farmers in terms of cooperation. Particular work should be done in teaching farmers to work in groups, trust each other, and organize systems of cooperative ventures in a way that would exclude cheating and free-riding behavior on the parts of both the cooperative members and the leaders. Stimulating social activities among farmers in rural areas might also increase cooperation. In addition, there is a need for agricultural consulting services offering high quality educational courses explaining the advantages of cooperatives and profits that they may provide to the members.

Context: Vegetable production is highly dependent on chemical fertilisers and pesticides, but the intensive use of these inputs negatively impacts the environment and human health. Ecological Intensification (EI) has the potential to counter the adverse effects of agricultural intensification and improve sustainability. Despite the potential benefits of EI for the environment, the adoption rate of EI in vegetable production is low. Moreover, most studies on EI adoption focus on implementing a single farming practice or a single production stage. Objective: This article aims to empirically analyse what factors influence the simultaneous adoption of various EI practices in different vegetable crop production stages by farmers in the context of an emerging economy such as Chile. Further, since the literature on EI practices adoption mainly analyses these factors as separate from each other, we aim to explore the interactions between factors and how these jointly impact the application of EI practices. Methods: We collected data via a survey to vegetable growers in the central zone in Chile. First, we measure EI practices adoption through a farm-level index that reflects the sustainability of farming practices in five production stages. Second, we identify which factors affect EI practices adoption through multiple linear regressions. Third, based on the results of the previous steps, we carried out a literature review to see how the factors predicting the adoption of EI could interact. This analysis was performed using structural equation modelling. Results and conclusions: Our results show that being a woman, receiving training on EI practices, and being pro-environment positively affect EI practices adoption. Contrarily, obstacles include the perception of risk and barriers, better access to credit and higher income from farm activities, all of which negatively affect EI practices adoption. With reference to the interaction amongst the factors, we found that economic

Improvement in the knowledge level of dairy farmers and the performance of on-farm safety and hygiene practices in emerging dairy chains is repeatedly recommended. However, appropriate training interventions to help farmers is not yet fully explored. Behaviour change theories to design training to improve knowledge and explore drivers of safety and hygiene control performance have been found useful in food service settings but were not yet tested in dairy farming. This study aimed to develop a training intervention based on the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and analyze its effectiveness in influencing drivers of dairy farmers’ behaviour to perform safety and hygiene control practices. Three teaching and learning methods were adopted: 1) slides and group discussions, 2) videos, pictures and story analysis, and 3) practical demonstrations. A total of 107 dairy farmers participated in a three-day training programme. Measuring at pre-training and post-training, we found that the knowledge level of most farmers improved. The number of farmers with a positive intention to perform specific pre- and post-milking practices such as hand washing, teat dipping, cleaning the shed, and milk storage in clean containers was higher post-training. Multiple linear regression analysis of the TPB model explained 25% of the variance of the intention to perform personal hygiene, 18% of the udder and teat care, 10% of the shed and floor sanitation, and 16% of milk cooling and storage practices. Also, the perceived pressure from others was a significant predictor of the intention to perform personal hygiene, udder and teat, and shed and floor sanitation practices. Thus, by using TPB as the underlying theory, we have unravelled the influence of subjective norm as a crucial factor in the performance of on-farm safety and hygiene control practices in societies where communal culture is dominant. Besides, this study adds to the scientific knowledge of the appropriate teaching and learning m

The study uses three elements of value chain analysis (VCA) - network structure, added value, and governance - to explore upgrading possibilities of value chains of producer organisations (PO)s in Indonesia in order to link smallholders to the modern retail market. Qualitative data are obtained through semi-structured interviews with PO members and other value chain actors. POs upgrade their value chains through linking smallholders with the modern retail market. Upgrading network structures is achieved by building collaboration between PO members and buyers. Upgrading added value is obtained by increasing the capability of farmers to meet quality requirements. Upgrading of governance structures in the chains is reached through contracts as vertical governance mechanisms and enhanced member services as horizontal arrangements.

Understanding the preferences of smallholder farmers for contracting can help in making contracts more sustainable. This paper presents the results of a choice experiment (CE) among smallholder farmers in Indonesia to assess their preferences for accepting contracts with modern retail. The CE was based on attributes of actual sales transactions in modern retail and traditional retail channels. A total of 301 vegetable smallholder farmers participated, consisting of 173 farmers participating in traditional markets and 128 in modern retail markets. A random parameter logit model estimates that, in general, smallholders do not prefer contracting with modern retail over spot market selling in traditional retail channels. Most contract attributes are perceived as negative by smallholders. A willingness-to-accept analysis shows that farmers are critical of most contract attributes, particularly those related to quality requirements. Producer organizations (POs) reduce transaction costs and increase smallholders' preference toward contracts. Contract designs that reduce transaction cost, mitigate risks for farmers, provide fair prices, and involve POs are more likely to attract smallholders to modern retail channels. [EconLit Citations: D23, O13, Q13].

Increasing demand for safe food in developing countries entails meeting stringent food safety requirements. Food retailers and regulatory bodies impose food safety measures related to production and handling of farm produce. For smallholders to remain competitive in such a system, institutional arrangements are necessary. We examine the role of producer organizations (POs) in influencing safe food production behaviours among farmers. Using data from 11 expert interviews and a quantitative survey involving 595 smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya, a propensity score matching estimation is employed to assess membership effects. We show that membership in POs positively and significantly influences smallholders’ adoption of food safety measures related to milk storage and the milking area. We highlight the importance of social incentives in improving food safety adoption among farmers even when price incentives are absent. Our recommendation is that PO policies that alleviate barriers to food safety adoption among farmers will be helpful in scaling up adoption.