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We take advantage of new 100-hour Spitzer/IRAC observations available for MACS0647-JD, a strongly lensed $z\approx11$ galaxy candidate, to provide improved constraints on its physical properties. Probing the physical properties of galaxies at $z>8$ is challenging due to the inherent faintness of such sources and the limited wavelength coverage available. Thanks to the high $\approx$2-6$\times$ lensing magnification of the multiple images of MACS0647-JD, we can use the sensitive Spitzer/IRAC data to probe the rest-frame optical fluxes of MACS0647-JD and investigate its physical properties including the age and the stellar mass. In deriving Spitzer/IRAC fluxes for MACS0647-JD, great care is taken in coping with the impact of three bright ($\approx$8-16 mag) stars in our field to ensure robust results. Assuming a constant star formation rate, the age, stellar mass, and rest-frame UV slope we estimate for MACS0647-JD based on a stack of the photometry are log$_{10}$(age/yr) = 8.6$^{+0.1}_{-2.1}$, log$_{10}$(M$_{*}$/M$_{\odot}$) = 9.1$^{+0.2}_{-1.4}$, and $\beta = -$1.3$\pm$0.6, respectively. We compare our results with expectations from the EAGLE simulation and find that MACS0647-JD has properties consistent with corresponding to the most massive and rapidly star-forming galaxies in the simulation. We also find that its radius, 105$\pm$28 pc, is a factor of $\approx$2 smaller than the mean size in a separate simulation project DRAGONS. Interestingly enough, the observed size is similar to the small sizes seen in very low-luminosity $z\approx$6-10 galaxies behind lensing clusters., Comment: Submitted to ApJ

Massive early-type galaxies follow a tight relation between the mass of their central supermassive black hole ($\rm M_{BH}$) and their stellar mass ($\rm M_{\star}$). The origin of observed positive outliers from this relation with extremely high $\rm M_{BH}$ ($> 10^{9} M_{\odot}$) remains unclear. We present a study of such outliers in the Hydrangea/C-EAGLE cosmological hydrodynamical simulations, designed to enable the study of high-mass galaxy formation and evolution in cluster environments. We find 69 $M_{\rm BH}(M_{\star})$ outliers at $z=0$, defined as those with $ \rm M_{BH} >10^{7} M_{\odot}$ and $\rm M_{BH}/\rm M_{\star}> 0.01$. This paper focusses on a sample of 5 extreme outliers, that have been selected based on their $\rm M_{BH}$ and $\rm M_{\star}$ values, which are comparable to the most recent estimates of observed positive outliers. This sample of 5 outliers, classified as `Black hole monster galaxies' (BMGs), was traced back in time to study their origin and evolution. In agreement with the results of previous simulations for lower-mass $\rm M_{BH}(\rm M_{\star})$ outliers, we find that these galaxies became outliers due to a combination of their early formation times and tidal stripping. For BMGs with $\rm M_{BH} > 10^9 M_{\odot}$, major mergers (with a stellar mass ratio of $\mu > 0.25$) at early times ($z>2$) precede the rapid growth of their supermassive BHs. Furthermore, the scatter in the relation between $\rm M_{BH}$ and stellar velocity dispersion, $\sigma$, correlates positively with the scatter in [Mg/Fe]($\sigma$). This indicates that the alpha enhancement of these galaxies, which is closely related to their star formation history, is related to the growth of their central BHs.

Recent spatially-resolved observations of massive early-type galaxies (ETGs) have uncovered evidence for radial gradients of the stellar initial mass function (IMF), ranging from super-Salpeter IMFs in the centre to Milky Way-like beyond the half-light radius, $r_e$. We compare these findings with our new cosmological, hydrodynamical simulations based on the EAGLE model that self-consistently vary the IMF on a per-particle basis such that it becomes either bottom-heavy (LoM-50) or top-heavy (HiM-50) in high-pressure environments. These simulations were calibrated to reproduce inferred IMF variations such that the IMF becomes "heavier" due to either excess dwarf stars or stellar remnants, respectively, in galaxies with increasing stellar velocity dispersion. In agreement with observations, both simulations produce negative radial IMF gradients, transitioning from high to low excess mass-to-light ratio (MLE) at around $r_e$. We find negative metallicity radial gradients for both simulations, but positive and flat [Mg/Fe] gradients in LoM-50 and HiM-50, respectively. Measured in radial bins, the MLE increases strongly with local metallicity for both simulations, in agreement with observations. However, the local MLE increases and decreases with local [Mg/Fe] in LoM-50 and HiM-50, respectively. These qualitative differences can be used to break degeneracies in the manner with which the IMF varies in these high-mass ETGs. At $z=2$, we find that the MLE has a higher and lower normalization for bottom- and top-heavy IMF variations, respectively. We speculate that a hybrid of our LoM and HiM models may be able to reconcile observed IMF diagnostics in star-forming galaxies and ETGs., Comment: 20 pages, 15 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS. Fig. 3 is new relative to the submitted version, showing the dependence of IMF slope radial gradients on (global) central stellar velocity dispersion

The manner in which the stellar initial mass function (IMF) scales with global galaxy properties is under debate. We use two hydrodynamical, cosmological simulations to predict possible trends for two self-consistent variable IMF prescriptions that respectively become locally bottom-heavy or top-heavy in high-pressure environments. Both simulations have been calibrated to reproduce the observed correlation between central stellar velocity dispersion and the excess mass-to-light ratio (MLE) relative to a Salpeter IMF by increasing the mass fraction of, respectively, dwarf stars or stellar remnants. We find trends of MLE with galaxy age, metallicity and [Mg/Fe] that agree qualitatively with observations. Predictions for correlations with luminosity, half-light radius, and black hole mass are presented. The significance of many of these correlations depends sensitively on galaxy selection criteria such as age, luminosity, and morphology. For an IMF with a varying high-mass end, some of these correlations are stronger than the correlation with the birth ISM pressure (the property that governs the form of the IMF), because in this case the MLE has a strong age dependence. Galaxies with large MLE tend to have overmassive central black holes. This indicates that the abnormally high MLE observed in the centres of some high-mass galaxies does not imply that overmassive BHs are merely the result of incorrect IMF assumptions, nor that excess M/L ratios are solely the result of overmassive BHs. Satellite galaxies tend to scatter toward high MLE due to tidal stripping, which may have significant implications for the inferred stellar masses of ultracompact dwarf galaxies., Comment: 16 pages, 6 figures. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

The recently inferred variations in the stellar initial mass function (IMF) among local high-mass early-type galaxies may require a reinterpretation of observations of galaxy populations and may have important consequences for the predictions of models of galaxy formation and evolution. We present a new pair of cosmological, hydrodynamical simulations based on the EAGLE model that self-consistently adopt an IMF that respectively becomes bottom- or top-heavy in high-pressure environments for individual star-forming gas particles. In such models, the excess stellar mass-to-light ($M/L$) ratio with respect to a reference IMF is increased due to an overabundance of low-mass dwarf stars or stellar remnants, respectively. Crucially, both pressure-dependent IMFs have been calibrated to reproduce the observed trends of increasing excess $M/L$ with central stellar velocity dispersion ($\sigma_e$) in early-type galaxies, while maintaining agreement with the observables used to calibrate the EAGLE model, namely the galaxy luminosity function, half-light radii of late-type galaxies, and black hole masses. We find that while the $M/L$ excess is a good measure of the IMF for low-mass slope variations, it depends strongly on the age of the stellar population for high-mass slope variations. The normalization of the [Mg/Fe]$-\sigma_e$ relation is decreased (increased) for bottom- (top-)heavy IMF variations, while the slope is not strongly affected. Bottom-heavy variations have little impact on galaxy metallicities, half-light radii of early-type galaxies, or star formation rates, while top-heavy variations significantly increase these quantities for high-mass galaxies, leading to tension with observations., Comment: 23 pages, 13 figures (+ 6 pages, 6 figures of appendices). Accepted for publication in MNRAS. Simulation data will become publicly available upon publication. Relative to the previous version, we now include comparisons to the observed dwarf-to-giant ratios and ionizing flux in ETGs and star-forming galaxies, respectively

The formation and evolution of gravitationally bound, star forming substructures in tidal tails of interacting galaxies, called tidal dwarf galaxies (TDG), has been studied, until now, only in idealised simulations of individual pairs of interacting galaxies for pre-determined orbits, mass ratios, and gas fractions. Here, we present the first identification of TDG candidates in fully cosmological simulations, specifically the high-resolution simulations of the EAGLE suite. The finite resolution of the simulation limits their ability to predict the exact formation rate and survival timescale of TDGs, but we show that gravitationally bound baryonic structures in tidal arms already form in current state-of-the-art cosmological simulations. In this case, the orbital parameter, disc orientations as well as stellar and gas masses and the specific angular momentum of the TDG forming galaxies are a direct consequence of cosmic structure formation. We identify TDG candidates in a wide range of environments, such as multiple galaxy mergers, clumpy high-redshift (up to z = 2) galaxies, high-speed encounters, and tidal interactions with gas-poor galaxies. We present selection methods, the properties of the identified TDG candidates and a roadmap for more quantitative analyses using future high-resolution simulations., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS; 18 pages (incl. 6 pages of Appendix)

Observations of local galaxies harbouring supermassive black holes (BHs) of anomalously high mass, M_BH, relative to their stellar mass, M_star, appear to be at odds with simple models of the co-evolution between galaxies and their central BHs. We study the origin of such outliers in a Lambda cold dark matter context using the EAGLE cosmological, hydrodynamical simulation. We find 15 'M_BH(M_star)-outlier' galaxies, defined as having M_BH more than 1.5 dex above the median M_BH(M_star) relation in the simulation, M_{BH,med}. All M_BH(M_star)-outliers are satellite galaxies, typically with M_star ~ 10^10 M_sun and M_BH ~ 10^8 M_sun. They have all become outliers due to a combination of tidal stripping of their outer stellar component acting over several Gyr and early formation times leading to rapid BH growth at high redshift, with the former mechanism being most important for 67 per cent of these outliers. The same mechanisms also cause the M_BH(M_star)-outlier satellites to be amongst the most compact galaxies in the simulation, making them ideal candidates for ultracompact dwarf galaxy progenitors. The 10 most extreme central galaxies found at z=0 (with log_{10}(M_BH/M_{BH,med}) in [1.2, 1.5]) grow rapidly in M_BH to lie well above the present-day M_BH-M_star relation at early times (z > 2), and either continue to evolve parallel to the z=0 relation or remain unchanged until the present day, making them 'relics' of the high-redshift universe. This high-z formation mechanism may help to explain the origin of observed M_BH(M_star)-outliers with extended dark matter haloes and undisturbed morphologies., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS; 17 pages, 11 figures, 1 table

We use cosmological N-body simulations from the Aquarius Project to study the tidal effects of a dark matter halo on the shape and orientation of its substructure. Although tides are often assumed to enhance asphericity and to stretch subhaloes tangentially, these effects are short lived: as in earlier work, we find that subhaloes affected by tides become substantially more spherical and show a strong radial alignment toward the centre of the host halo. These results, combined with a semi-analytic model of galaxy formation, may be used to assess the effect of Galactic tides on the observed population of dwarf spheroidal (dSph) satellites of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies. If, as the model suggests, the relatively low dark matter content of luminous dSphs such as Fornax and Leo I is due to tidal stripping, then their gravitational potential must be substantially more spherical than that of more heavily dark matter-dominated systems such as Draco or Carina. The model also predicts a tidally-induced statistical excess of satellites whose major axis aligns with the direction to the central galaxy. We find tantalizing evidence of this in the M31 satellite population, which suggests that tides may have played an important role in its evolution., Comment: 16 pages, 13 figures, submitted to MNRAS

Optimised population synthesis provides an empirical method to extract the relative mix of stellar evolutionary stages and the distribution of atmospheric parameters within unresolved stellar systems, yet a robust validation of this method is still lacking. We here provide a calibration of population synthesis via non-linear bound-constrained optimisation of stellar populations based upon optical spectra of mock stellar systems and observed Galactic Globular Clusters (GGCs). The MILES stellar library is used as a basis for mock spectra as well as templates for the synthesis of deep GGC spectra from Schiavon et al. (2005). Optimised population synthesis applied to mock spectra recovers mean light-weighted stellar atmospheric parameters to within a mean uncertainty of 240 K, 0.04 dex, and 0.03 dex for T_eff, log(g), and [Fe/H], respectively. Decompositions of both mock and GGC spectra confirm the method's ability to recover the expected mean light-weighted metallicity in dust-free conditions (E[B-V] < 0.15) with uncertainties comparable to evolutionary population synthesis methods. Dustier conditions require either appropriate dust-modelling when fitting to the full spectrum, or fitting only to select spectral features. We derive light-weighted fractions of stellar evolutionary stages from our population synthesis fits to GGCs, yielding on average a combined 25+/-6 per cent from main sequence and turnoff dwarfs, 64+/-7 per cent from subgiant, red giant and asymptotic giant branch stars, and 15+/-7 per cent from horizontal branch stars and blue stragglers. Excellent agreement is found between these fractions and those estimated from deep HST/ACS CMDs. Overall, optimised population synthesis remains a powerful tool for understanding the stellar populations within the integrated light of galaxies and globular clusters., Comment: Body: 38 pages, 14 figures, 2 tables; Appendices: 53 pages, 4 figures; accepted for publication in MNRAS

We use simulations of Milky Way-sized dark matter haloes from the Aquarius Project to investigate the orbits of substructure haloes likely, according to a semi-analytic galaxy formation model, to host luminous satellites. These tend to populate the most massive subhaloes and are on more radial orbits than the majority of subhaloes found within the halo virial radius. One reason for this (mild) kinematic bias is that many low-mass subhaloes have apocentres that exceed the virial radius of the main host; they are thus excluded from subhalo samples identified within the virial boundary, reducing the number of subhalos on radial orbits. Two other factors contributing to the difference in orbital shape between dark and luminous subhaloes are their dynamical evolution after infall, which affects more markedly low-mass (dark) subhaloes, and a weak dependence of ellipticity on the redshift of first infall. The ellipticity distribution of luminous satellites exhibits little halo-to-halo scatter and it may therefore be compared fruitfully with that of Milky Way satellites. Since the latter depends sensitively on the total mass of the Milky Way we can use the predicted distribution of satellite ellipticities to place constraints on this important parameter. Using the latest estimates of position and velocity of dwarfs compiled from the literature, we find that the most likely Milky Way mass lies in the range $6 \times 10^{11} M_{\odot} < M_{200} < 3.1 \times 10^{12} M_{\odot}$, with a best fit value of $M_{200} = 1.1 \times 10^{12} M_{\odot}$. This value is consistent with Milky Way mass estimates based on dynamical tracers or the timing argument., Comment: 10 pages, 9 figures, Accepted by MNRAS

Current models of galaxy formation predict that galaxy pairs of comparable magnitudes should become increasingly rare with decreasing luminosity. This seems at odds with the relatively high frequency of pairings among dwarf galaxies in the Local Group. We use literature data to show that ~30% of all satellites of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies brighter than M_V=-8 are found in likely physical pairs of comparable luminosity. Besides the previously recognised pairings of the Magellanic Clouds and of NGC 147/NGC 185, other candidate pairs include the Ursa Minor and Draco dwarf spheroidals, as well as the And I/And III satellites of M31. These pairs are much closer than expected by chance if the radial and angular distributions of satellites were uncorrelated; in addition, they have very similar line-of-sight velocities and luminosities that differ by less than three magnitudes. In contrast, the same criteria pair fewer than 4% of satellites in N-body/semi-analytic models that match the radial distribution and luminosity function of Local Group satellites. If confirmed in studies of larger samples, the high frequency of dwarf galaxy pairings may provide interesting clues to the formation of faint galaxies in the current cosmological paradigm., Comment: 6 pages, 3 figures; updated version accepted for publication in MNRAS. minor changes, conclusions unchanged