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Тема выпускной квалификационной работы: «Модернизация системы поддержки принятия решения при выдаче Ð±Ð°Ð½ÐºÐ¾Ð²ÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð³Ð°Ñ€Ð°Ð½Ñ‚Ð¸Ð¹Â». Данная работа посвящена модернизации системы поддержки принятия решений при выдаче Ð±Ð°Ð½ÐºÐ¾Ð²ÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð³Ð°Ñ€Ð°Ð½Ñ‚Ð¸Ð¹, предназначенной для сотрудников банка при рассмотрении заявки на выдачу гарантии. Задачи, которые решались в Ñ Ð¾Ð´Ðµ исследования: 1. Исследование теории устройства Ð¿Ð¾Ð´Ð¾Ð±Ð½Ñ‹Ñ ÑÐ¸ÑÑ‚ÐµÐ¼, выполнение краткого обзора Ð¸Ð¼ÐµÑŽÑ‰Ð¸Ñ ÑÑ решений; 2. Формализация и описание предметной области деятельности и Ñ Ð°Ñ€Ð°ÐºÑ‚ÐµÑ€Ð¸ÑÑ‚Ð¸Ðº клиентов; 3. Разработка и реализация в Ñ€Ð°Ð¼ÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð´ÐµÑ€Ð½Ð¸Ð·Ð°Ñ†Ð¸Ð¸ системы поддержки принятия решений метода оценки клиентов; 4. Апробация Ð¿Ñ€ÐµÐ´Ð»Ð¾Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñ‹Ñ Ñ€ÐµÑˆÐµÐ½Ð¸Ð¹ на Ñ€ÐµÐ°Ð»ÑŒÐ½Ñ‹Ñ Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð½Ñ‹Ñ . Во время выполнения работы была проанализирована предметная область. По результатам анализа Ð¿Ð¾Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð½Ñ‹Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑÐ²Ð¾Ðº были сформированы критерии наиболее Ð·Ð½Ð°Ñ‡Ð¸Ð¼Ñ‹Ñ Ñ Ð°Ñ€Ð°ÐºÑ‚ÐµÑ€Ð¸ÑÑ‚Ð¸Ðº клиента, на которые обращает внимание сотрудник при принятии решения. По результатам анализа Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð½Ñ‹Ñ Ñ Ð°Ñ€Ð°ÐºÑ‚ÐµÑ€Ð¸ÑÑ‚Ð¸Ðº была предложена концепция модернизации системы на основании применения Ð½ÐµÑ‡ÐµÑ‚ÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð´ÐµÑ€ÐµÐ²ÑŒÐµÐ² решений с целью классификации клиента. Выполнено построение Ð½ÐµÑ‡ÐµÑ‚ÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð´ÐµÑ€ÐµÐ²ÑŒÐµÐ² решений с использованием набора Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð½Ñ‹Ñ Ð¸ предложена структура организации базы ÑÑ‚Ð¸Ñ Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð½Ñ‹Ñ . В качестве результата работы был предложен модуль, добавляемый на этапе рассмотрения заявки, с помощью которого можно осуществлять классификацию клиента Ð¸ÑÑ Ð¾Ð´Ñ из его Ñ Ð°Ñ€Ð°ÐºÑ‚ÐµÑ€Ð¸ÑÑ‚Ð¸Ðº. Применение данного модуля позволило расширить функционал доступный сотруднику на стадии рассмотрения заявки на выдачу банковской гарантии, а также существенно сократить затраты времени на принятие решения., The theme of the final qualification work: "Modernization of the decision support system for issuing bank guarantees".This work is devoted to improving the decision support system for issuing bank guarantees, intended for bank employees when considering applications for issuing a guarantee. Tasks that were solved in the course of the study: 1. The study of models of system devices, the complete absence of detection of solutions; 2. Formalization and description of the subject area of activity and the characteristics of clients; 3. Development and implementation within the framework of the customer assessment decision-making system; 4. Approbation of the proposed solutions on the smallest data. During the execution of the work, the subject area was analyzed. Based on the results of the analysis of the submitted applications, criteria were formed for the most significant characteristics of the client, which the employee pays attention to when making a decision. Based on the results of the analysis of these characteristics, the concept of system modernization was proposed based on the use of fuzzy decision trees in order to classify the client. The construction of fuzzy decision trees using a set of data is carried out and the structure of the organization of the database of these data is proposed. As a result of the work, a module was proposed that is added at the stage of consideration of the application, with the help of which it is possible to classify the client based on his characteristics. The use of this module allowed expanding the functionality available to an employee at the stage of considering an application for issuing a bank guarantee, as well as significantly reducing the time spent on making a decision.

In the article the theoretical and practical bases of the resource- free use financing tools were complemented. In particular, the essence of the definition “resource-free financing” was studied through the identification of the content of such categories as the “,resource-free” and “financing”. In the article the basic resource-free financial tools were identified, which include the following: a letter of credit, bank guarantees, trade credit, bill, collection letter, their nature and peculiarities of use were disclosed. The systematization of the advantages and disadvantages of using different kinds of resource-free tools financing was done. In order to study the current state of their use in the article invent-analysis was carried out, using of commercial banks official websites, which offer appropriate services in the use of resource-free financing tools, that allowed us to obtain statistical information on their using and taking into account such data to conduct macro-analysis of the current state of the application of such tools in Ukraine. This analysis also allowed identifying the main problems in the use of resource-free financial tools, which restraining the process of activating their use in our country., Углубленно теоретические и практические основы использования инструментов безресурсного финансирования. В частности, исследована сущность дефиниции «безресурсное финансирование» через идентификацию содержания таких категорий, как «безресурсный» и «финансирование». В рамках статьи определены основные инструменты безресурсного финансирования, к числу которых отнесены следующие: аккредитив, банковская гарантия, торговый кредит, вексель, инкассовое поручение, раскрыта их сущность и особенности использования. Систематизированы преимущества и недостатки использования различных видов инструментов безресурсного финансирования. С целью исследования современного состояния их использования проведен ивент-анализ официальных сайтов коммерческих банков, которые предлагают соответствующие услуги в сфере использования инструментов безресурсного финансирования, что позволило получить статистическую информацию по их использованию и с учетом таких данных провести макроанализ текущего состояния применения таких инструментов в Украине. Указанный анализ позволил также идентифицировать основные проблемы в сфере использования инструментов безресурсного финансирования, сдерживающих процесс активизации их использования в нашей стране., Поглиблено теоретичні та практичні засади використання інструментів безресурсного фінансування. Зокрема, досліджено сутність дефініції «безресурсне фінансування» через ідентифікацію змісту таких категорій, як «безресурсний» і «фінансування». У межах статті визначено основні інструменти безресурсного фінансування, до яких віднесено такі: акредитив, банківська гарантія, торговий кредит, вексель, інкасове доручення, розкрито їх сутність та особливості використання. Систематизовано переваги та недоліки використання різних видів інструментів безресурсного фінансування. З метою дослідження сучасного стану їх використання проведено івент-аналіз офіційних сайтів комерційних банків, які пропонують відповідні послуги у сфері використання інструментів безресурсного фінансування, що дозволило отримати статистичну інформацію щодо їх використання і з урахуванням таких даних провести макроаналіз поточного стану застосування таких інструментів в Україні. Вказаний аналіз дозволив також ідентифікувати основні проблеми у сфері використання інструментів безресурсного фінансування, що стримують процес активізації їх використання у нашій державі.

�������������������� ������������������ ������������������ (������) ������ ���������������� ������������������ �� ���������������� �������������� ���������������� �������������������� ���������� ������ ������. �������� ����������������, �������������������������� �� ���������� 2000-�� ����., �������������������� ���� ������ ���������������������� ������������������������ ���������� ������������������������ ������ ������������������ ���������� ������������������������ ����������������. ������ �������������������������������� ���� ������������������������������ ������������������ �� ������������������ ������������������-������������������ ������������������, ������������������������ ���� ������������ ���������������� ������������ ���������� ������������������-������������������ ����������������, ���� �� ������������������ ������������������ ������������������ ����������������������, �� ���������� ������������ ������������������������., Export credit agencies have existed for more than a century as a tool of supporting exports and trade. The number of crises since 2000 requested from ECAs to reconsider their toolkit used for supporting national economies. Thus, ECAs have been transforming from institutions initially engaged in mostly insurance operations into the ones providing both insurance and banking services, offering not only insurance coverage for export and import operations, but also the tools of supporting banks as well as direct financing and lending.

At the present time profound economic and political changes are happening in Russia, which directly influence the state and development speed of the construction industry. The consequences of the crisis affected business activity construction companies in Russia. The prospects of the further development of construction and investment sector are possible only in case of creation of competitive products: creation of construction objects with accound for market demands, application of modern construction technologies and high-quality materials, reduction of labour, materials, energy costs per unit of construction production, decrease of bureaucratization of the procedures and minimization of shadow economy influence on order distribution. This is possible only in case of efficient interaction of the participants of construction and investment sector. The author considers the concept of stakeholders and the problem of interaction of the participants of construction-investment sector due to the lack of attention of professional community to the corresponding field of knowledge - the stakeholder theory. On meso-level the diversity of functional roles resulting from the main provisions of this theory, greatly influences the strategic positions of the development of the field. The author also considers the use of bank guarantees and bonds and other issues for improving the sphere of activities of companies with a great number of stakeholders.

L’Italia, al pari del resto del mondo, ha affrontato nel corso degli ultimi dieci anni una crisi economica e finanziaria di enorme portata. In Italia la crisi finanziaria si è sovrapposta, aggravandola, a quella reale. In particolare, alla generalizzata contrazione nell’erogazione e al peggioramento delle condizioni di accesso al credito si è osservata una maggiore selettività dei clienti da parte delle banche. La crisi bancaria ha causato una drastica riduzione del credito soprattutto verso le PMI che, in misura relativamente maggiore rispetto ad imprese di maggiori dimensioni, dipendono dalla possibilità di accedere ai prestiti bancari. In questo quadro, che solo recentemente vede l’economia italiana avviata verso un sentiero di ripresa, un ruolo importante nell’accesso ai finanziamenti bancari è stato svolto dagli organismi di garanzia collettiva meglio noti come Confidi., Argomenti, N. 9 (2018): gennaio-aprile

This thesis is divided into two parts - theoretical and analytical. In the theoretical part, there are defined groups of risks related to doing business internationally and selected bank risk mitigating tools used as a protection against the risks mentioned. Specifically, there are discussed the most used types of bank guarantees, documentary collection and letter of credit. The second part of this thesis, analytical part, comprises of five business cases presenting adequate application of a bank guarantee instrument. Complex business case follows where various risks are analyzed from many angles. Analysis outcome is a recommendation of optimal business solution using a combination of various Trade Finance products.

The absence of sovereign bond issuances with World Bank guarantee support for almost 15 years and the customized application of the WB guarantee instrument led potential investors in the Ghana bond to ponder the best way to value the instrument. This paper provides guidance on this subject by presenting four ways to assess the value of a World Bank guarantee for debt capital market issues. The methodologies presented are: nominal weighted average yield; rolling nominal weighted average yield; discounted cash flow; and recovery analysis. The paper presents the methodologies by applying them to a fictional bond issuance by the government of Emergistan, a fictional low income country. Background information on the country and bond issuance has been kept to the minimum as the sole purpose of this example is to illustrate the results of each of the methodologies. It should be noted that World Bank guarantees can be structured in a number of ways depending on the issuer’s objectives as well as country and market circumstances. For instance, guarantees could cover interest and/or principal payments of bonds. Coverage could be on a first loss or back-ended basis. Therefore, the most appropriate valuation method would depend on the specific features of the guarantee being considered.

The World Bank Group’s investment climate project conducted a survey of foreign investors in the Kyrgyz Republic - both those currently operating and those that have terminated their operations for various reasons. The purpose of the survey was to assess selected aspects of the investment policy and legal environment in place in the Kyrgyz Republic, so as to determine whether the current regulations are investment-conducive or otherwise. The following aspects were studied as part of this survey: reasons for selecting a country for investing, ease of market entry, investor confidence, and protection in running a business, investor incentives and market exit. This report presents the analysis of the results of the survey. It consists of six sections, five of which discuss the results of each of the assessed aspects of the investment policy. The sixth section presents some demographics of the survey.

By increasing access to finance for out-of-reach households and families, microfinance continues to be an essential tool for improving livelihoods at the base of the pyramid. The last 20 years have seen remarkable growth in the microfinance sector. From its early stages in small-scale microenterprise lending, through its commercial expansion to offer savings and a broad array of financial services to low-income customers, to its entry into new markets and incorporation of technological innovations, microfinance is ensuring that an ever-greater number of households have permanent access to a range of high-quality and affordable financial services. The microfinance industry is estimated at $60 to $100 billion globally, where several thousand microfinance organizations reach an estimated 200 million clients, most of whom were not previously served by the formal financial sector. However, 2.5 billion adults still lack access to formal financial services. Financial services for low-income people are an important factor when it comes to poverty reduction, as it enables them to build assets, increase incomes and reduce their vulnerability to economic stress. Moreover, microfinance continues to be an important tool when it comes to empowering women. IFC is the World Bank Group s main investor in microfinance, working with around 300 microfinance institutions (MFIs) and SME-focused financial institutions, which provide financial services in 91 countries. IFC is also one of the leading global investors in terms of volume. In fiscal year 2014, we committed $519 million in 43 projects with MFIs. Our cumulative investment portfolio in microfinance exceeded $3.5 billion, with outstanding commitments of $2.0 billion. In fiscal year 2014, IFC advisory services comprised $74.2 million, representing advisory assistance for 86 projects. This smart book, titled from small beginnings to great opportunities, presents practical lessons learned from the work that authors have been doing on microfinance projects over the last twenty years. From launching the Microfinance Enhancement Facility to help the industry stay afloat during the time of crisis, to working on a project to support microfinance clients to fulfill their housing dreams, these narratives are both engaging and insightful.

The World Bank Group’s investment climate project conducted a survey of foreign investors in the Kyrgyz Republic - both those currently operating and those that have terminated their operations for various reasons. The purpose of the survey was to assess selected aspects of the investment policy and legal environment in place in the Kyrgyz Republic, so as to determine whether the current regulations are investment-conducive or otherwise. The following aspects were studied as part of this survey: reasons for selecting a country for investing, ease of market entry, investor confidence, and protection in running a business, investor incentives and market exit. This report presents the analysis of the results of the survey. It consists of six sections, five of which discuss the results of each of the assessed aspects of the investment policy. The sixth section presents some demographics of the survey.

Over the past few years, Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in Iraq have emerged as credible sources of financing for low-income households and entrepreneurs, both underserved by conventional banks. Microfinance services in Iraq, however, are still nascent and far from meeting their full potential. Similar to many countries in the MENA region, MFIs in Iraq were set up as non-governmental organizations (NGOs) supported by a steady influx of donor funding. While these NGOs were initially able to grow through donor support, they are now struggling to meet increasing client demand as donor resources have dwindled, preventing them from making the necessary investments in capital and infrastructure to meet growing client demand. Many countries address this funding challenge by allowing institutions to provide financial services as companies or banks, helping them raise capital, provide new services, and increase their outreach in a sustainable manner. A similar path could be envisioned in Iraq, but is currently obstructed by regulatory hurdles. This diagnostic report aims to present and assess the current microfinance landscape in Iraq, including the legal and regulatory framework, recommend policy improvements to enhance the sustainability and operating environment for MFIs and their clients. This report argues that the current legal and regulatory environment for microfinance in Iraq hinders the growth and sustainability of the sector and furthermore advocates several short and medium term policy recommendations to enhance the overall operating environment for MFIs, the sustainability of the sector, and impact for clients.

Very small enterprises (VSEs) in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) represent a broad and heterogeneous segment, often underserved by formal financial institutions. They are generally informal and often family businesses. The financial needs of these enterprises are typically overlooked by “downscaling” banks, which find larger and often more formal small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to be a more natural market for their products and services. Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) are starting to move upmarket to serve SMEs, and in particular, VSEs within this segment. However, they use varying definitions, methodologies and products to do so and to date there has been little research or documentation of their experiences. This report highlights the results of a recent study of the existing practices in Latin America of MFIs serving VSEs, where VSEs are considered to be those businesses with financing needs of between US$7,000 and US$30,000. It is a starting point for an institution considering entering the segment, or for one that finds itself having grown into the segment “organically” but with a view to strengthen its position. It includes several checklists for MFIs interested in expanding upmarket into the VSE space, as well as more detailed discussions and examples of the most relevant points.

Çalışmamızın konusunu `garanti sözleşmeleri` oluşturmaktadır. Garanti sözleşmeleri uygulamada sıkça karşımıza çıkmasına rağmen Türk Borçlar Kanununda kendine düzenleme bulamamış olması nedeniyle tarafımızca ayrıntılı olarak incelenmiştir. Çalışmamız giriş ve sonuç bölümleri hariç olmak üzere dört bölümden oluşmaktadır. İlk bölümde, borç ve sorumluluk kavramlarından, teminat kavramı ve türlerinden bahsedilmiş daha sonra tezimizin konusu olan garanti sözleşmesinden kavram olarak ve sözleşmenin tartışmalı niteliğinden bahsedilmiştir. İkinci bölümde, garanti sözleşmesinin kurulması, tarafları ve geçerlilik unsurlarından, garanti sözleşmesinin türleri, garanti sözleşmelerinin benzer türlerinden ayırt edilmesi ve garanti sözleşmesinin özel bir görünümü olan banka teminat mektuplarından bahsedilmiştir. Üçüncü bölümde, garanti sözleşmesinin hüküm ve sonuçlarından bahsedilmiştir.Son olarak dördüncü bölümde ise, garanti sözleşmesinde zamanaşımı ve garanti sözleşmelerinin sona ermesinden bahsedilmiştir. The subject of the thesis is guarantee contracts. Even tough the guarantee contracts are frequently encountered in practice, it has not found itself in the editing area in the Turkish Code of Obligations. That is the purpose that we have examined the contract in detail. Except for the introduction and conclusion, our study consists of four sections.In the first part, the concepts of obligation and responsibility, colleteral and the types of collateral are examined. After the basics the mainly subject of our thesis concept and contentious nature of the guarantee contract is mentioned.In the second part, establishment of the guarantee contracts, the contractual parties and the validity elements of guarantee conrtacts, the types of the guarantees, the difference between the similar types of guarantees and the bank guarantees that are the special appearance of the guarantee contracts are mentioned. In the third part, the provisions and consequences of the guarantee contracts is mentioned.Finally in the fourth part, the statute of limitations and the expiration of the guarantee contracts is mentioned. 174

This tenth edition of Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting eleven areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, resolving insolvency and employing workers. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 185 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. The indicators are used to analyze economic outcomes and identify what reforms have worked, where and why. This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Nicaragua. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2012 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January - December 2011).

In 2011 the Ghanaian government issued a policy establishing Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) for the purpose of implementing infrastructure projects and improving the capacity of services provision. A World Bank Mission visited Ghana early in 2012 to assess the legal and practical feasibility of participation in PPPs at the sub-national level of the Government and the possibility that private commercial banks can provide non-sovereign financing to such PPPs. This report will present a summary of the available information on local governments and financial markets in Ghana, and identify potential infrastructure investments that could later be supported directly or indirectly by the International Finance Corporation (IFC) sub-national window, such as with bank guarantees, non sovereign loans, equity or other means. This report also discusses the legal framework for financial operations of SOEs.

Bančne garancije so nastale in se razvile zato, da udeležence poslovnih tran¬sakcij učinkovito ščitijo pred številnimi riziki, katerim so izpostavljeni v mednarodnih poslovnih odnosih. Zaradi številnih tveganj, ki nastajajo pri vseh vrstah poslov, je potrebno poznati načine, kako se proti njim zavarovati. Podjetje NIEROS Metal, d. o. o., se plačil na odprt račun izogiba, ker obstaja veliko tveganje, da kupec ne bo plačal na rok ali pa da sploh ne bo plačal. Ker podjetje v glavnem prodaja investicijsko opremo po naročilu kupca, zahteva do 30 % avansnega plačila. Nekateri kupci za plačani avans zahtevajo garancijo za vračilo avansa. Podjetje pa tudi samo velikokrat zahteva garancijo s strani kupca, saj se je v preteklosti že zgodilo da kupec ni želel poravnati računa. V tem delu sem prikazal tudi, kako je podjetje postopalo, ko je kupec zahteval garancijo za vračilo avansa, saj je bil dogovorjen način plačila 100 % avans. Bank guarantees have been developed for the purpose of securing participants in international transactions from various risks which are connected with international business. Because there are numerous risks involved with every kind of business, it is necessary to know different ways of insurance against these risks. Company NIEROS Metal d. o. o. avoids open book accounts, because there is high risk that the buyer will not pay on the agreed date or that he will not pay at all. Because the company mainly sells investment equipment by the buyer's custom specifications, it requests 30% of advanced payment. Some buyers request a guarantee for the return of an advanced payment. The company itself often wants a guarantee from the buyer because it has happened that the buyer did not want to clear the payment. In this work I also show what the company had to do, when a buyer requested a guarantee for the return of an advanced payment, when the agreed paying method was 100% advanced payment.

Afghanistan's economy is growing strongly. The growth drivers in recent years have been above-average agricultural production, strong growth in construction and transportation, and security spending enabled by large aid flows, especially in FY2009/10. Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth reached 8.4 percent in FY2010/11. Afghanistan's fiscal position is strengthening. In the last three years revenues grew by an average of 34 percent p.a., thanks to improvements in customs and tax administration. Larger increases are expected once mining operations and with the introduction of a value-added tax in FY2014/15. However, government expenditures will also increase in the coming years due to higher security spending, the roll out of pay-and-grading reforms for the civil service, rising recurrent obligations from large donor-supported projects (including those financed outside of the core budget) and the fiscal costs of the Kabul Bank bail-out. The first phase of the handover of security responsibilities to Afghan national security forces in six locations has been completed.

This report was initiated at the request of the Iraqi government to get a better understanding of the overall financial sector in Iraq. The main objective of the report was to develop a comprehensive assessment of the financial sector. This report takes a first look at the overall financial system of Iraq with a forward looking approach. Key findings of the report are: 1) Iraq's financial sector is dominated by the banking system, with most assets held by state-owned banks; 2) many private banks are in the process of developing modern banking practices, but still need further strengthening and consolidation; 3) other financial markets are concentrated at the Iraqi stock exchange but capitalization is low, and few instruments are traded; 3) the insurance sector is small, dominated by state- owned enterprises, and is not supervised; 4) weak financial infrastructure is a clear impediment to access to finance; and 5) Small Medium Enterprises (SME) and microfinance is not well developed.

This assessment forms part of the joint International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Bank Indonesia Financial Sector Assessment Program (FSAP) which is being undertaken during 2009-2010. The assessment, which covers the private sector equity and corporate bonds securities system's observance of the Committee on Payment and Settlement Systems / International Organization of Securities Commissions (CPSS/IOSCO) recommendations for securities settlement systems, was conducted during an ad hoc mission. The assessment focuses on two types of trades. First the clearing and settlement process is assessed as regards equity transactions traded on the stock exchange Indonesian Stock Exchange (IDX), cleared through the Clearing and Guarantee Corporation (KPEI) clearing system (e-CLEARS) and settled through the Central Securities Depository for the Stock Exchange securities (KSEI) settlement system (C-BEST). In addition, the assessment focuses on corporate bond transactions, which are traded outside the exchange and settled through the KSEI settlement system (C-BEST).

ÖZETSon yıllarda yaşanan ekonomik gelişmeler, ticari ve sosyal yaşamın gelişmesi, nüfus artışı ve teknolojik gelişmelere bağlı olarak kişiler (gerçek ve tüzel kişiler) birbirleriyle daha fazla hukuki ilişkiye girmek zorunda kalmışlar. Bu şekilde ticari ilişkilerin artmasına bağlı olarak da ticari ilişkilerde eskiye oranla “güven” kurumu daha önemli hale gelmiştir. Ticari ilişkilerde güven kurumunun öneminin artmasında birer güven kurumu olan bankaların büyük etkisi olmuştur. Birer güven kurumu olan bankalar uygulamada gayrinakdi kredi işlemi adı altında yaygın olarak teminat mektubu düzenleyip genelde müşterileri olan lehtarlara vermektedirler. Bankalar, teminat mektuplarının hukuki niteliğinin garanti sözleşmesi niteliği taşıyor olmaları sebebiyle, kefalet sözleşmesinde kefilin yasadan kaynaklı sahip olduğu rücu hakkına sahip değiller. Böyle olunca riskin gerçekleşmesi ve teminat mektubunun paraya çevrilmesi neticesi muhataba ödeme yapan bankanın lehtara rücu hakkının nasıl gerçekleşeceği, dolayısıyla bankanın kendini nasıl güvenceye alacağı bu çalışma ile anlatılmaya çalışılmıştır. Bankalar kendilerini güvence altına almak için lehtar veya lehtar dışındaki üçüncü kişi gerçek veya tüzel kişilerden daha başta teminat mektubu düzenlerken kontrgaranti almaktadırlar. Lehtar veya üçüncü kişilerce bankalara verilen kontrgarantiler çok çeşitli olup; her türlü ayni veya şahsi teminat kontrgaranti olarak teminat mektubunun teminatını oluşturabilecektedir. Bu çalışma ile kontrgaranti olarak verilebilecek teminatların tamamı değil; sadece kontrgaranti amaçlı garanti sözleşmesi anlatılmaya çalışıldı. ABSTRACTThe economical developments within the recent years, the growth of trade and social life, people (real and legal entities) have began to enter into more legal relationships depending upon the population growth and technological developments. The established “trust” became more important when compared to the rate of the old trade relations as a result of the recent growth in the new trade relationships. The banks have played a big role in the increase of the trust establishments within the trade relationships. Banks, being an entrusted establishments, under the name of contingencies have set up many letter of guarantees and give these out to its customers who are its beneficiaries. Due to the reasons that the letter of guarantees are seen as a guaranteee contract, banks do not have the authority due to the bailees legal rights to recourse within the bailing contract. As a result of this with this dissertation piece how the banks can protect itself will be explained, because in the case that a risk arises and as a result of that the letter of credit is exchanged for money the paying bank will have to explain to its beneficiaries the process of rights to recouse. In order for the banks to protect itself, banks will have to obtain a counter guarantees while setting up the letter of credit process to its beneficiaries or third parties aside from the beneficiaries who may or may not be real or legal entities. Even though these counter guarantees are of many kind that the banks receive from beneficiaries or third paries; these letter of guarantees can be used as a guarantee to the letter of guarantee in the form of either of any kind or personal counter guarantees. With this research not the whole counter guarantees that will be given in exchange for letter of guarantees; but only the counter guarantees for the purposes of an guarantee agreement will be tried to examined.

У статті досліджені банківські гарантії як забезпечення виконання платіжних зобов’язань за експортно-імпортними операціями. Bank guarantees as providing of implementation of pay obligations are after export-import operations are investigated in the article.

Erendaç, Filiz, Banka Teminat Mektupları (Harici Garantiler-Kontrgarantiler), Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Danışman: Doç.Dr. Asuman Turanboy, 131 s. TEZ OZETI Ticarî faaliyetlerin zamanla uluslararası alanda yaygınlaşması, piyasalardaki mal ve para akışının hız kazanması, aynı pazarda ve hatta uluslararası piyasalarda ticaret yapılmasını gündeme getirmiştir. Bu durum, birbirlerini tanımayan taraflar arasındaki `güven` arayışını hızlandırmış ve taraflar, aralarında akdedilen sözleşmelerle yetinmeyerek alternatif güven araçları, teminat mekanizmaları arama çabasına girmişlerdir. Piyasalarda `güven` unsurunun sağlanabilmesini teminen, yeni teminat mekanizmalarının kurulması, mevcut hukuk düzenlerinin bu gelişmeler çerçevesinde değişime uğraması ve bu mekanizmalarla ilgili yeni düzenlemeler yapılması gereğini doğmuştur. İşte banka teminat mektupları, piyasalardaki güvenin sağlanabilmesini teminen en pratik ve nakde tahvili en çabuk geçekleşecek çözüm olarak ortaya konulmuş ve gerek yurt içi gerekse uluslararası ticaretin hareketlenmesine neden olmuştur. Banka teminat mektuplarında, bankanın asli taahhüdü; herhangi bir protesto keşide edilmesine veya mahkeme kararına gerek olmaksızın ve borçlunun rızasını almaksızın, muhatabın ilk yazılı talebinde derhal ve gecikmeksizin ödemeyi taahhüdüdür. Bu unsurlar, teminat mektuplarının garanti sözleşmeleri olarak nitelendirilmelerinde de büyük önem taşımakta ve banka teminat mektuplarının nakde tahvili en kolay teminat olmasını sağlayan özelliği olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Teminat mektupları taşıdığı bu özellikler gereği, yurt içi uygulamanın yanı sıra uluslararası alanda da itibar görmüş ve etkisini hissettirmiştir. Tezimizde, `harici garanti` ve `kontrgaranti` olarak isimlendirilen ve uluslararası alandadüzenlenen teminat mektupları, aynı zamanda garantör bankalar açısından da büyük bir gelir kaynağı olmuş ve düzenlenen garanti mektubu meblağı nispetinde alınan komisyonlar, bankaların gelirlerinin önemli bir bölümünü teşkil etmeye başlamıştır. Diğer yandan, arz ettikleri öneme rağmen ne ülkemizde ne de temelini Roma Hukuku'ndan alan diğer Avrupa Devletleri Hukuk sistemlerinde konu ile ilgili yeterli yasal düzenleme bulunmamaktadır. Karşılaşılan sıkıntılar, yargı kararları ve doktrin görüşleri ile giderilmeye çalışılmıştır. Tüm bu nedenlerle, günümüzde artık `garanti sözleşmesi` olarak kabul edilen banka teminat mektupları, gerek düzenlenmesi esnasında ortaya çıkan sorunların tespiti, gerekse bu sorunlara çözüm bulunabilmesini teminen tezimizin konusu oluşturmuştur. Ülkemizde teminat mektubu uygulaması; 2886 sayılı kanun gereği, çoğu zaman gerçek/ tüzel şahıslar arasındaki özel hukuk sözleşmeleri nedeniyle ve neredeyse tek tip metinler olarak karşımıza çıkmıştır. Kanun kapsamında düzenlenen bu metinler, her ne kadar tezimiz çerçevesinde detaylı olarak ele alınmamışsa da taşıdıkları genel özellikler itibariyle teminat mektubu türlerini içeren kısımda genel olarak incelenmiştir. Esas itibariyle bu metinlerin yurt dışı banka kontrgarantisi mukabilinde düzenlenmesi hali ve taşıdıkları özellikler nedeniyle dış muhabirlerle yaşanan sorunlar irdelenmiştir. Taraflar arasındaki özel hukuk ilişkileri nedeniyle düzenlenen teminat mektupları ise; uluslararası alandaki ilişkiler yönünden ele alınmış, yurt içi ticarî ilişkilerden kaynaklanan teminat mektubu düzenlenmesi konusu, tezimizin kapsamı dışında bırakılmıştır. Bu kapsamda, uluslararası mal /hizmet alışverişleri ve yine uluslararası alanda açılan ihaleler nedeni ile düzenlenecek teminat mektupları ve bu mektupların taşıması gereken özellikli durumlar da ele alınarak incelenmiştir.Böylece tezimizin kapsamını uluslararası bazda düzenlenecek teminat mektupları oluşturmakla birlikte, banka teminat mektuplarının gelişimi, çeşitleri ve Hukukumuzdaki yerini tespit edebilmeyi teminen ilk bölümde genel açıklamalara yer verilmiştir. Açıklamalarımız, teminat mektupları hakkında Milletlerarası Ticaret Odası'nın yayımlamış olduğu `Talepler Hakkındaki Yeknesak Kurallar` adlı 458 no'lu broşür hükümleri ile paralellik arz etmekte ve ülkemiz mevzuatından kaynaklanan çelişkili bir takım hukuki kurumları irdelemeye yönelik olmuştur. Tezimizin ikinci bölümde mektup türleri üzerinde durulmuştur. Üçüncü bölümde ise hukukî ilişkinin tarafları ve taraflar arasındaki ilişkilere yer verilmiştir. İlişkilerin tespiti, daha sonra ele alınacak teminat mektuplarının hükümleri konusunda yol gösterici olacak ve rücu ilişkisinin tespitinde önem arz edecektir. Genel açıklamalar, terminoloji kavramının ele alınması, `kontrgaranti` ve `harici garanti` kavramlarının bankacılık uygulamasındaki yerinin tespiti sonrası; tezimizin dördüncü bölümünde, uluslararası bankacılık uygulamasında kullanılan metinlerle ilgili olarak dikkat edilmesi gereken bir takım özellikli hususlar ele alınmıştır. Nitekim, uluslararası piyasada teminat mektubu uygulamasına yol göstermeyi teminen yayımlanan `ICC Uniform Rules For Demand Guarantees- MTO Talep Garantileri Yeknesak Kuralları` ICC 458 sayılı yayım ile ülkemiz mevzuatında ortaya çıkan bir takım çelişkili durumlar da bu bölümde ele alınarak incelenmiştir. Beşinci bölümde ise, teminat mektubu ile güvence altına alman riskin gerçekleşmesi ve mektubun tazmini halinde lehtara rücu konusu ele alınmıştır. Bu çerçevede daha önceki bölümlerde belirtilen tazmin talebinin taşıması gereken nitelikler ve bankanın tazmin talebini yerine getirmekten imtina etmesi halinde karşılaşılacak hukukî durumlar üzerinde durulmuştur. Tezimizin altıncı ve son bölümünde ise; teminat mektuplarının diğer bir takım hukukî kurumlar (ihtiyati tedbir, alacağın temliki, haciz) karşısındaki durumu tespit edilmiş ve bu kurumlar karşısında bankanın sorumluluğu saptanmıştır. Böylece altı ana bölümden oluşan Tezimizde uluslararası ticarî ilişkilerde güvenin sağlanabilmesini teminen düzenlenen banka teminat mektupları (harici garantiler-kontrgarantiler) konusunda, uygulamanın yarattığı hukukî sorunlar tespit edilerek çözüm yolları aranmıştır. Erendaç, Filiz, Banka Teminat Mektuplan (Harici Garantiler-Kontrgarantiler), Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Danışman: Doç.Dr. Asuman Turanboy, 131 s. SUMMARY The widening of the commercial transactions in the international field and the movements in monetary system has affected the merchants and speed up international trading operations. This progress exposed the searches for the need of confidence and security between the traders and the traders not being contented by the bilateral agreements between themselves have begun to endeavor to find out alternative securities. The need of new security mechanisms in commercial transactions and in the financial markets also made a great effect in the present law systems and this resulted as changes in present regulations and caused new arrangements in the regulatory systems. Letter of Guarantees (Bank Guarantees) have come into force in this point and took its part in the financial markets and banking area as the most practical way for the need of `security` and caused great effect in international trade. The principal undertaking of the bank under a letter of guarantee is to pay on first written demand, without any objection and the need to take the principal's consent. The payment is to be made immediately and without any delay. In consideration of these features the letter of guarantees having their effect both in native and international banking practice are classified into two groups as `harici garantiler` and `kontrgarantiler` (both can be considered as counter guarantees) in our thesis. It also worth mentioning that letter of guarantees constitutes a big source of income for the banks because of the commissions taken on pro rata basis of the guarantee amount.On the other hand and with contradiction to the importance of the letter of guarantees, neither in our county nor in the EU there are sufficient legal regulations on the matter. And any conflicts arising out of the letter of guarantees are to be resulted with court decisions and doctrine because of the lack in the legal systems. For all these reasons and because of the lack in the legal system, letter of guarantees, which are considered as `guarantee agreements`, constitutes the subject of our thesis. And in this thesis it is aimed to find out the solutions for the problems faced in letter of guarantee practices in international trade especially. Because of the law number 2886, letter of guarantee practice in our country, is mostly standardized and the wordings of the letters remain unchanged because of the legal requirements arising out of the law. Law number 2886 based guarantee letters are not examined in our thesis, but are referred only for their general and characteristic attributes. The specific reason for mentioning these guarantees in our thesis is to examine the problems when these guarantees are issued under the responsibility and instruction of the correspondent banks. Letter of guarantees that are issued because of the private law relations between the parties are also mentioned in our thesis. But this relation is studied, only in international basis. Therefore our thesis does not include any explanations about the guarantee letter practice arising out of native private law relations. In this respect the main subject of our thesis is the letter of guarantees issued on the basis of international trade. But there is a brief explanation in the first part of our thesis in order to determine the place of letter of guarantees in our legal system and to examine the developments and the varieties on the matter. Our explanations are in parallel with the Uniform Rules for Demand Guarantees ICC Publication no: 458 and points out the contradictions between the Uniform Rules and our native regulations.The second part of our study constitutes the classification of the letter of guarantees. The parties of the legal transaction and the relation between the parties are defined in the third part of our study. The study on the relation between the parties of the legal transaction will be a guide while examining the consequences of the letter of guarantees and recourse in case of an indemnification under the guarantee bond. After our general explanations and taking up the terminology of `kontrgaranti` and `harici garanti` in banking practice, in the forth part of our thesis we have pointed out some specific cases that may occur in international letter of guarantee practices and also underlined the characteristic points on this issue. As a matter of fact the contradictions between the Uniform Rules for Demand Guarantees, ICC Publication No: 458 and our native regulation are also examined in this part of our study. `Payment request` under the guarantee bond and `recourse to the principal` is examined in the fifth part of our study. In this framework, we have also pointed out the legal specifications that a payment request must bear and the legal problems when a bank ceases to effect payment under a guarantee bond letter. In the sixth and the last part of our thesis letter of guarantees is examined and compared with some other legal transactions such as `cautionary judgement`, `assignment of claims` and `attachment`. The responsibility of the banks under these legal transactions is also mentioned in this part of our study. As a consequence in our thesis, containing six parts, we have tried to stress out the points that legally have an effect on the letter of guarantees issued for international trade (harici garantiler/kontrgarnatiler) operations and also gave our suggestions for the solutions of the legal problems observed, 131

Prikazuje se sudska praksa hrvatskih sudova u svezi s bankovnim garancijama

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