Search

The endemic Caspian seal Pusa caspica breeds on land-fast ice or stable drift ice in the northern Caspian Sea. Breeding has rarely been reported in the ice-free south-eastern Caspian Sea. Five carcases of white-coat Caspian seal pups were recovered from the southern Caspian Sea, Iran, during 2019–2022. From survey interviews, two white-coat Caspian seal pups were also observed in Amirabad and between Ghorogh and Rudsar. These records represent very late pupping dates compared to normal pupping periods. Coastal Iran should be surveyed annually for Caspian seal pups to determine frequency of breeding and areas of importance identified in the Iran Caspian Seal Action Plan.

New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri) are expanding in numbers and distribution throughout New Zealand. The exception is the West Coast of the South Island, where there is documented decli...

Professionals who choose to work in animal-care-related fields often have deep connections to animals, their well-being, and a strong commitment to service. The work is sometimes profoundly challen...

Oil spills are environmental disasters and their long-term impact is not just a concern for the environment and economy, but also for first responders’ health and wellbeing. Wildlife, such as aquatic birds and certain marine mammals, are highly susceptible to physiological effects of oiling, and oiled wildlife responders are crucial to provide measures for their survival. The purpose of this research was to explore the experiences of oiled wildlife responders and what factors and conditions have helped or inhibited the responders to care-affected wildlife. This study collected responses (n = 50) from a survey of responders who attended either the New Zealand MV Rena or US Refugio pipeline oil spills. Study participants were mostly older (&gt, 40), highly educated females. We found there were significant differences in compassion satisfaction, resilience, burnout and overall satisfaction based on age, gender and role. While most responders have only attended limited numbers of oil spill incidents, they reported positive experiences and found it rewarding. Findings from responders indicated that to lessen stress and compassion fatigue during an incident, provision of training and support from professional organizations equips responders with knowledge and skills that can support their personal resilience to respond to disaster events.

The world's subantarctic islands are rare, ecologically distinct ecosystems with geographical and climahemistic challenges for undertaking emergency response. Their remoteness has somewhat protected them and their flora and fauna from environmental pollution threats and impacts. However, with increasing tourism, fishing, oil and gas exploration and shipping routes, the risk of accidents and petroleum spills has exponentially increased. This review explores the uniqueness of New Zealand's (NZ) subantarctic islands, their oil spill threats and the legislation protecting them. Then using this background information; use the NZ subantarctic islands as examples to understand oiled wildlife response options for subantarctic islands. There are obvious logistical constraints on ability to respond in these remote areas. However, with planning, including preparation of specialised plans, equipment and readiness of skilled response personnel; the conservation outcomes for these ecologically significant, isolated areas, is greater preparedness and protection with the increased ability to respond effectively.

In 2015, an ambitious wildlife response preparedness project was initiated; funded as part of the post-Macondo IPIECA-IOGP (International Association of Oil and Gas Producers) Oil Spill Response Joint Industry Project (OSR-JIP). The Global Oiled Wildlife Response System (GOWRS) Project, which involved 11 leading wildlife response organizations from seven countries, aimed to develop an international framework for oiled wildlife response as well as encourage the further development of wildlife response preparedness by industry and other stakeholders. This paper will provide an overview and assessment of the key outcomes of both the JIP-funded phase of the project (2015-16; development of internationally agreed standards and common operating procedures) and the second industry-funded phase (2017-18; focused on response readiness) in order to provide key background information to support the movement towards operationalizing the system.

Stable isotope analysis is increasingly used to investigate diet and foraging behaviour in marine wildlife. For marine mammals, samples from offspring are being used as proxies for their mothers foraging isotope niche as the transfer of nutrients between mother and neonates is solely through milk. Most of these proxy studies have, however, used only easily collected tissues, such as fur or whiskers. Quantifying the changes in δ13C and δ15N values between mother and pup requires the measurement of the mother/offspring pairs’ milk and blood serum. Here, δ13C and δ15N values were measured from serum and milk samples from lactating New Zealand (NZ) sea lion, Phocarctos hookeri females and their pups. The change in δ13C values between mother and pup serum averaged ~ 0.8‰. Whole milk was strongly δ13C depleted compared to serum δ13C values from either mothers or pups. The change in δ15N values averaged 1.3‰ between mother and pup serum, while differences in δ15N values from whole milk to mother or pup serum averaged 0.4‰ and 0.9‰, respectively. Lactating NZ sea lions are known to have two distinct foraging ecotypes which can be identified in their isotopic values and these differences could also be determined in the δ15N values of milk and serum samples from their pups. Similar to other research, the findings confirm that changes in δ13C and δ15N between tissues of mothers and pups are species and tissue specific, and greater research is needed to understand their physiological and biochemical isotopic relationship.

The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) is an endangered and declining species restricted in distribution by past human exploitation to southern New Zealand and its subantarctic islands. This chapter investigates how the behavior of New Zealand sea lions is influencing this species’ recovery and recolonization back to mainland New Zealand. New Zealand sea lions show high levels of philopatry to their birth colonies. The colonization of new breeding habitats rarely occurs when philopatry is strong for females of a species; however, some female New Zealand sea lions have dispersed more than 700 km to start breeding far from their birth place. What behaviors, in both male and female New Zealand sea lions, encouraged or allowed this recolonization to occur and how do these behaviors affect current population parameters?

Worldwide, most crested penguin species (Eudyptes spp.) are in decline. New Zealand's subantarctic Antipodes Islands are of international significance for erect‐crested (Eudyptes sclateri) and rockhopper (Eudyptes filholi) penguins. Between 1995 and 2011, a 23% decline was recorded in the two penguin species on the Antipodes Islands. In October 2014, nest abundance counts on Antipodes Island were undertaken to determine if this decline was continuing, particularly in light of a significant storm event that hit the Antipodes area in January 2014 causing massive landslides during the penguin breeding season. All penguin colonies ground counted in 2011 were preferentially ground counted in 2014 or, if time or weather did not allow, were checked with binoculars to confirm colony presence or absence. Seventy‐three per cent of the colonies and the equivalent of 82% of all nests counted in 2011 were recounted in 2014. Overall, there was a 19% decline in erect‐crested penguin nests between 2011 and 2014. Rockhopper penguins showed a slight increase (2.6%). Landslides affected 11% of the main islands’ land area and 44% of surveyed nesting colonies. Erect‐crested penguin colonies with approximately 75% or greater of their area impacted by landslides showed a significantly greater decline than unaffected or only partially impacted colonies. Landslides showed a minimal effect on rockhopper nest numbers. There continues to be a significant decline of erect‐crested penguins at the Antipodes Islands. An increasing occurrence of extreme weather events are predicted with climate change and have the potential to increase land‐based flooding and landslides, adding additional impacts to terrestrial breeding marine species. Greater understanding of what is causing erect‐crested penguin decline is needed to prevent this endangered species from extinction.

Research on management in higher education predominantly investigates senior staff such as Deans or Pro-Vice-Chancellors. Relatively little attention is focused on the department level, middle mana...

SummaryHuman disturbance can have behavioural, physiological and population-level consequences on wildlife. Unregulated tourism is having a negative effect on the endangered Yellow-eyed Penguin Megadyptes antipodes on mainland New Zealand. Subantarctic Yellow-eyed Penguins are exposed to tourism on Enderby Island in the Auckland Islands group, 450 km south of New Zealand. Restrictions and guidelines for tourism are in place on Enderby Island, but there has been little study on the efficacy of these. We quantified behavioural responses of the Yellow-eyed Penguin on Enderby Island to human presence by documenting movement patterns and behaviour of penguins in the presence and absence of humans, through both controlled approaches and monitoring penguin behaviour in the presence of tourists. We used these data to model the effective approach distances for reducing disturbance. Human presence caused a significant drop in the probability of a successful transit to or from their nest, and significantly increased the time penguins spent alert and decreased the time spent preening. Modelling showed the distance from a human to a penguin is a significant predictor of the likelihood of a bird displaying disturbance behaviour, with the current minimum approach guideline of 5 m not sufficient for preventing disturbance. Our results indicate that the minimum approach guideline needs to be revised if the probability of disturbance is to be reduced. Modelling the appropriateness of minimum approach guidelines by predicting the probability of disturbance is a useful technique that could be applied to other species and systems. Worldwide, management guidelines need to be scientifically evaluated to ensure efficacy and cater for the more sensitive species affected.

The MV Rena ran aground on the 5 October 2011 off the coast of New Zealand, releasing over 350 t of heavy fuel oil. The environmental effects of this spill are well documented, however, little research has been undertaken regarding the short term economic losses observed because of the spill. By looking at pre- and post-spill trends for commercial fisheries and tourism in the area, as well as the clean-up and restoration costs, the direct costs associated with the MV Rena oil spill can be estimated. Overall, net losses of NZD 45,479,017 were observed. This research adds to the limited economic reports regarding small/medium oil spills, and demonstrates that even these smaller spills are capable of having a sizeable impact on local economies.

Aquatic pollution events can be detrimental to the survival of wildlife, particularly birds. To decontaminate affected birds, large quantities of fresh water are required. A recent study using seabird feathers, demonstrated that seawater wash/rinse can effectively remove oil from feathers. However to determine whether seawater was effective for live birds, we used 36 mallard ducks to replicate the oiled feather wash/rinse study. We investigated the time and volume of water used, bird water-proofing scores after daily swims and a barbule amalgamation index (BAI), for feathers collected at stages throughout the process. Results indicate that for oiled mallard ducks, the use of seawater for decontamination wash/rinse was effective. Seawater wash however, took longer and used a greater quantity of water. Time to birds being waterproof, was not significantly different between groups. The use of seawater has worldwide application for oiled wildlife response activities particularly in areas where freshwater supplies are limited.

The rescue and care of vulnerable wildlife is rewarding. Most people involved in animal rescue have a strong commitment to service but the work can be profoundly challenging. The ability to know an...

The value of rehabilitating oiled wildlife is an on-going global debate. On October 5, 2011, the cargo vessel C/V Rena grounded on Astrolabe Reef, New Zealand (NZ), spilling over 300 tonnes of heavy fuel oil. As part of the Rena oil spill response, 383 little blue penguins (LBP, Eudyptula minor) were captured, cleaned, rehabilitated and released back into a cleaned environment. Over the last four years, since the C/V Rena spill, we have undertaken survival, diving behaviour, diet and stress hormone response research on these and non-rehabilitated LBPs from the spill area to assess the success of the rehabilitation process, determine what lessons could still be learnt and to help determine if the environment has returned back to its natural state. Findings from this research showed that the survival was reduced for both rehabilitated and non-rehabilitated groups in the first six months following the spill and clean-up process however, the survival probabilities of both groups increased thereafter and remained high and stable over a two year period directly after the spill. The foraging behaviour and diet studies showed there were no foraging behaviour differences between rehabilitated and non-rehabilitated LBPs and the overall diving behaviour of these LBPs were similar, if not less energetic, than other LBPs in NZ, indicating that the environment appeared to have also returned to pre-oiling state. Concurrently, the stress hormone response study showed no differences between groups, suggesting the rehabilitation process for LBP did not affect their long term physiological responses to humans, meaning no habituation or excessively stress caused by humans over the long term. Together these results suggest the rehabilitation process and clean-up undertaken after the C/V Rena appears effective and helps validate the rehabilitation of oiled wildlife.

2017-133 December 2016 marked the conclusion of a two-year global oiled wildlife response preparedness project, funded by the International Association of Oil & Gas Producers/IPIECA Oil Spill Response-Joint Industry Project (IOGP/IPIECA OSR-JIP). This project brought together leading oiled wildlife response organizations from seven countries to design a preparedness and response system that would support the mobilization and integration of tier 3 (international) wildlife response resources if activated by the oil industry or other stakeholders. The project outcomes include written standards and procedures that represent a further step towards integration of oiled wildlife preparedness and response as an oil industry standard worldwide, and allow for the foundations of a global approach to be built upon good practice as defined by the international oiled wildlife response community. 2017 sees the system entering a second (beta) phase with a further funding commitment being provided by the oil industry via Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL). Building on the introduction and overview to this project as presented at the International Oil Spill Conference in 2014 (Kelway et al., 2014), this paper will explore key outcomes and assess the project’s impact and implications, particularly in relation to the present and future role of multi-stakeholder collaboration in the advancement of global oiled wildlife response preparedness.

The breeding success, foraging strategies and abundance of penguin species are thought to vary according to the quality of near-shore marine environments. Little blue penguins (LBP), Eudyptula minor, in particular, are considered a candidate species for assessing near-shore marine productivity and integrity due to their limited foraging ranges and reliance on local resources, particularly during breeding. However, to assess their ability to be near-shore ecosystem indicators an understanding of what their “normal” dive patterns and population parameters from across New Zealand are needed. This research investigates diving behaviours and feather stable isotope values (as indicators of diet) of LBPs from southern (Pearl Island, Stewart Island/Rakiura, Nov. 2011) and central (Adele Island, Abel Tasman, Nov. 2012) New Zealand (NZ), two areas not previously studied, and compares them with LBPs from other areas of NZ. The diving behaviours of LBPs across NZ, are highly variable, not obviously linked with local geography and bathometry. These results and the NZ wide comparison indicates that LBPs are environmentally adaptable, which may make them difficult to use as ecosystem indicators across sites. However, with increasing knowledge of diving behaviours and population parameters of LBPs within a region, they are likely to be indicators of local changing marine environment.

Understanding population size and trend is critical information in species management and conservation. To enable accurate population trend estimates, consistent robust monitoring of a species is essential, particularly for a species such as the New Zealand (NZ) sea lion, Phocarctos hookeri, which has experienced an almost continuous decline in pup production since the late 1990s. This research examines the pup production estimates for all known breeding sites for this species, and using a stage-structured matrix population model, estimates population size and trend between 1995 and 2015. Overall, it is estimated that 2,316 pups were born in 2015, a decrease of 13% since 1995 and a 27% decline since the highest pup production estimate in 1998. This decline has been driven by the significant decline of 48% at the main breeding area, the Auckland Islands since 1998. Using the stage-structured matrix population model a total species population size of 11,767 sea lions (95% CrI: 10,790–12,923) was estimated. This is the lowest population size of any sea lion species. Trend data for the Auckland Islands indicated that pup and population numbers have decreased at 1.9% yr−1 in the last 20 yr, while total species population decline is 0.6% yr−1. Estimates of population trends for this species have been hindered by inconsistent monitoring at most breeding sites. This study strengthens the growing field of research highlighting the need for consistent long-term monitoring for the conservation management of endangered species.

Rockhopper penguins are delimited as 2 species, the northern rockhopper (Eudyptes moseleyi) and the southern rockhopper (Eudyptes chrysocome), with the latter comprising 2 subspecies, the western rockhopper (Eudyptes chrysocome chrysocome) and the eastern rockhopper (Eudyptes chrysocome filholi). We conducted a phylogeographic study using multilocus data from 114 individuals sampled across 12 colonies from the entire range of the northern/southern rockhopper complex to assess potential population structure, gene flow, and species limits. Bayesian and likelihood methods with nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, including model testing and heuristic approaches, support E. moseleyi and E. chrysocome as distinct species lineages with a divergence time of 0.97 Ma. However, these analyses also indicated the presence of gene flow between these species. Among southern rockhopper subspecies, we found evidence of significant gene flow and heuristic approaches to species delimitation based on the genealogical diversity index failed to delimit them as species. The best-supported population models for the southern rockhoppers were those where E. c. chrysocome and E. c. filholi were combined into a single lineage or 2 lineages with bidirectional gene flow. Additionally, we found that E. c. filholi has the highest effective population size while E. c. chrysocome showed similar effective population size to that of the endangered E. moseleyi. We suggest that the current taxonomic definitions within rockhopper penguins be upheld and that E. chrysocome populations, all found south of the subtropical front, should be treated as a single taxon with distinct management units for E. c. chrysocome and E. c. filholi. Fil: Mays, Herman L.. Marshall University; Estados Unidos Fil: Oehler, David A.. Wildlife Conservation Society; Estados Unidos Fil: Morrison, Kyle W.. No especifíca; Fil: Morales, Ariadna E.. American Museum of Natural History; Estados Unidos Fil: Lycans, Alyssa. Marshall University; Estados Unidos Fil: Perdue, Justin. Marshall University; Estados Unidos Fil: Battley, Phil F.. Marshall University; Estados Unidos Fil: Cherel, Yves. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique; Francia Fil: Chilvers, B. Louise. Massey University; Nueva Zelanda Fil: Crofts, Sarah. No especifíca; Fil: Demongin, Laurent. No especifíca; Fil: Fry, W. Roger. No especifíca; Fil: Hiscock, Jo. No especifíca; Fil: Kusch, Alejandro. Wildlife Conservation Society,; Estados Unidos Fil: Marin, Manuel. American Museum of Natural History; Estados Unidos Fil: Poisbleau, Maud. University of Antwerp; Bélgica Fil: Quillfeldt, Petra. Justus Liebig University Giessen; Alemania Fil: Raya Rey, Andrea Nélida. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas; Argentina Fil: Steinfurth, Antje. University of Cape Town; Sudáfrica Fil: Thompson, David R.. National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research; Nueva Zelanda Fil: Weakley, Leonard A. No especifíca

The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) is a threatened endemic species, with only three breeding colonies in the sub-Antarctic islands. Since 1993, there has been evidence for recolonisation of mainland New Zealand. Yet the coast that the sea lion has returned to only has fragmented and unevenly distributed potential habitats due to coastal urbanisation and development. Therefore, the need to identify and protect potential breeding habitats for recolonisation is a priority for management. A GIS-based multi-criteria analysis was used to identify potential suitable habitats for a 1600 km length of the NZ South Island coast based on distance to anthropogenic disturbance (urban areas, roads), distance to desirable environmental features (beaches, estuaries) and presence of suitable habitat/land access. From this model, we identified preliminary suitable habitat for breeding sites on the Otago Peninsula (east coast) and Catlins Coast (south). We independently detected some of the current dominant areas used by recolonising sea lions as well as identifying some promising new sites. We discuss the limitation of the results of this case study and the need for further data to be added to the model in the face of limited data availability. Overcoming this data limitation will meet an increasing need for a New Zealand-wide study for determining potential habitat for NZ sea lions. The results of such a study would identify areas to allow real-world management (protection or restoration) of the limited potential breeding sites for New Zealand sea lions. This new method could also be used for other recolonising species and encourage management of areas most likely to be recolonized by them.

The New Zealand sea lion (NZSL) is of high conservation concern due to its limited distribution and its declining population size. Historically, it occupied most of coastal New Zealand, but is now restricted to a few coastal sites in southern mainland New Zealand and the sub-Antarctic Islands. NZSLs have experienced a recent reduction in population size due to sealing in the 1900s, which is expected to have resulted in increased inbreeding and a loss of genetic variation, potentially reducing the evolutionary capacity of the species and negatively impacting on its long-term prospects for survival. We used 17 microsatellite loci, previously shown to have cross-species applications in pinnipeds, to determine locus- and population-specific statistics for 1205 NZSLs from 7 consecutive breeding seasons. We show that the NZSL population has a moderate level of genetic diversity in comparison to other pinnipeds. We provide genetic evidence for a population reduction, likely caused by historical sealing, and a measure of allele sharing/parental relatedness (internal relatedness) that is suggestive of increased inbreeding in pups that died during recent epizootic episodes. We hypothesize that population bottlenecks and nonrandom mating have impacted on the population genetic architecture of NZSLs, affecting its population recovery.

Birds are extremely vulnerable to the effects of oil pollution. For wildlife, prevention of oiling is the best response option, however if not feasible, the fastest response gives the highest chance of survival. Therefore, the development of an oiled wildlife preparedness plan based on analysis of areas at risk, vulnerable species and potential response options is critical. This research developed an area based, species priority index (SPI) for New Zealand birds to guide oiled wildlife planning. The SPI shows significant areas of New Zealand's shoreline and offshore islands have many highly vulnerable species that need careful consideration given restricted response options available. Identification of these areas and species allows priority planning for placement of personal and equipment. This SPI can be adapted for other species (marine mammals and reptiles) and for other geographical areas to help develop response plans for oil pollution and oiled wildlife response worldwide.

In Meyer et al. (1), we fitted a Bayesian state-space Gompertz population model to assess whether the implementation of sea lion exclusion devices (SLEDs) in trawl fisheries has served to protect New Zealand sea lions (NZSLs) or obscured ongoing mortality. We found strong evidence of obscured ongoing mortality. Roberts et al. (2) do not take issue with our main analysis but criticize two of our supplemental results. Here, we provide clarification of our work and show that Roberts et al.’s (2) claims are based on misunderstandings. First, Roberts et al. (2) criticize our sensitivity analysis, suggesting it only used the upper 95% confidence interval bounds of … [↵][1]2To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: stefanmeyer621{at}gmail.com. [1]: #xref-corresp-1-1

Marine mammal species were exploited worldwide during periods of commercial sealing in the 18th and 19th centuries. For many of these species, an estimate of the pre-exploitation abundance of the species is lacking, as historical catch records are generally scarce and inaccurate. Genetic estimates of long-term effective population size provide a means to estimate the pre-exploitation abundance. Here, we apply genetic methods to estimate the long-term effective population size of the subantarctic lineage of the New Zealand sea lion (NZ sea lion), Phocarctos hookeri . This species is predominantly restricted to the subantarctic islands, south of mainland New Zealand, following commercial sealing in the 19th century. Today, the population consists of ~9,880 animals and population growth is slow. Auckland Island breeding colonies of NZ sea lion are currently impacted by commercial trawl fisheries via regular sea lion deaths as bycatch. In order to estimate sustainable levels of bycatch, an estimate of the population’s carrying capacity ( K ) is required. We apply the genetically estimated long-term effective population size of NZ sea lions as a proxy for the estimated historical carrying capacity of the subantarctic population. The historical abundance of subantarctic NZ sea lions was significantly higher than the target values of K employed by the contemporary management. The current management strategy may allow unsustainable bycatch levels, thereby limiting the recovery of the NZ sea lion population toward historical carrying capacity.

Understanding the life history basis of the population dynamics of threatened species is crucial to their assessment and recovery. Within the Southern Pacific Ocean, the decline and range contraction of New Zealand sea lions (NZSLs) (Phocarctos hookeri) are an exemplary case of a major fisheries and conservation controversy. Despite the use of bycatch reduction measures, the main population of the NZSL has declined since 1998 and its vulnerability to threats is poorly understood. Here we develop a population model for the declining population of the endangered NZSL at the Auckland Islands, New Zealand (\(50^{\circ }30^{\prime }\hbox {S}, 166^{\circ }17^{\prime }\hbox {E}\)), parameterised by mark-recapture data of 2928 female NZSLs spanning 15 years from 1998 to 2012, and provide the first comprehensive analysis of NZSL population dynamics and its relationship to life history. Our model closely predicts the observed trend in population censuses of the main breeding population. We found that the population will continue to decline without effective intervention. Furthermore, we found that the population growth rate is most responsive to changes in survival of adult female NZSLs—the demographic group that is most threatened by fishery bycatch. Nevertheless, inferences about the efficacy of NZSL bycatch reduction measures are still imprecise. Combined, this could explain why the main population of NZSLs continues to decline. Our results emphasise that reliable data on bycatch reduction measures are needed, if they are to be shown to protect key demographic groups of marine mammals.

Summary During an oil spill, marine wildlife, particularly birds, are at risk of external contamination, affecting insulation, waterproofing and consequently survival. Decontamination of oiled wildlife usually involves a succession of washes and rinses with warm, freshwater and detergent. However, accessibility of large quantities of freshwater needed for cleaning oiled wildlife can be limited. To assess the efficacy of sea water as an alternative, we used 80 seabird feathers, 40 saturated with heavy fuel oil and 40 unoiled feathers as controls, then washed and rinsed them using either freshwater or sea water, or a combination of both. Cleanliness and water repellency were assessed visually, and a barbule amalgamation index (BAI) was calculated to evaluate feather microstructure. Particulate residue was assessed using scanning electron microscopy. Results indicate that for oiled feathers, a sea water wash/rinse produced clean, low BAI/unclumped feathers with minimal particulate residue. Sea water cleaning trials should now be undertaken on live birds to understand links with sea water use and waterproofing. The method described has world-wide application for oiled wildlife response activities and could be readily modified for the cleaning of other taxa such as mammals.

Summary The New Zealand fur seal, Arctocephalus forsteri (also referred to in Australia as the long-nosed fur seal), is one of the fur seal species in the genus Arctocephalus . New Zealand fur seals have a widespread distribution from the New Zealand and Australian subantarctic islands through to temperate northern New Zealand and southern Australia. Similar to most Otariidae (eared seal) species, New Zealand fur seals were hunted to near extinction during the 19th century sealing era. However, since becoming protected their numbers and range have increased steadily, although they have not yet expanded to what was thought to be their presealing population levels or distribution. Like many pinnipeds, a primary threat to New Zealand fur seals is fishing-related mortality via both direct (mortality) and indirect (entanglement, resource competition) interactions.

Summary Eared seals, or the Otariidae, belong to one of three pinniped groupings (the other two being the phocids (true seals) and the odobenids (walrus). They comprise 16 extant species within seven genera and are commonly known either as sea lions (6 species) or fur seals (10 species). Otariids have semiaquatic lifestyles, feeding and migrating in the sea, but breeding and resting on land. They reside in subpolar, temperate, and equatorial waters throughout the Pacific and Southern Oceans, but are absent from the North Atlantic. Four of the six sea lion species are listed as threatened by IUCN, while only 2 of the 10 fur seal species are at risk. All otariids species have experienced extreme overharvesting that in some cases lead to their near extinction. However, today the biggest human threat for many of the eared seals is interactions with fisheries resulting in entanglement and drowning.

Summary The New Zealand sea lion, Phocarctos hookeri, is the least numerous of the world’s extant sea lions. It has a highly restricted breeding range within the New Zealand subantarctic islands. Over the last 16 years pup production at the main breeding area, the Auckland Islands, has declined by 50%. New Zealand sea lions once bred along the entire New Zealand coastline but were hunted to near extinction. Female New Zealand sea lions are known to be the longest, deepest diving Otariidae (eared seal) with dives to over 700 m having been recorded. The main threats to New Zealand sea lions are fisheries bycatch, resource competition with fisheries, prey habitat modification due to bottom trawling, disease, and likely in the longer term impacts of climate change.

Significance Declines of marine megafauna such as turtles, pinnipeds, and whales are often related to mortality caused by capture or entanglement in fisheries gear. To help recovery of these species, trawl fisheries have implemented exclusion devices that release nontarget species. Despite decades of use, there has been no empirical evaluation of whether or not exclusion devices aid recovery of affected species. Long-term data on the endangered New Zealand sea lion and a trawl fishery in the Southern Ocean indicate that exclusion devices have paradoxically contributed to ongoing decline rather than recovery. Exclusion devices obscure the postrelease impact of elevated mortality or reproductive failure; meanwhile, reduced levels of reported by-catch may mislead management that continued decline is not associated with fisheries.

During the 2011 M/V Rena oil spill in Tauranga, New Zealand, 383 little blue penguins (LBP, Eudyptula minor) were oiled, rescued and rehabilitated, with 90.6% surviving to be released back to the wild. We monitored the post-release breeding success of rehabilitated LBPs to assess the effectiveness of the rehabilitation process. Breeding success was monitored during the first breeding season post-release (2012-13) to assess productivity for both rehabilitated and control penguins (breeding pairs of rehabilitated or non-oiled (control) birds). Egg laying, hatching and fledging success rates for pairs of rehabilitated and control penguins were both within ranges reported for other LBP colonies in Australia and New Zealand. The only significant difference between rehabilitated and control pairs was that hatching success was reduced in the first season after release for rehabilitated pairs. Overall, rehabilitation appeared to reverse most potential negative effects of oiling on the post-release breeding success of rehabilitated LBP.

ELAINE S. LEUNG, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand and School of Surveying, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; B. LOUISE CHILVERS, Department of Conservation, Marine Species & Threats, PO Box 10-420, Wellington 6143, New Zealand; ANTONI B. MOORE, School of Surveying, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; BRUCE C. ROBERTSON, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.

The diving ability of juvenile animals is constrained by their physiology, morphology and lack of experience, compared to adults. We studied the influences of age and mass on the diving behaviour of juvenile (2–3-year-old females, n = 12; 3–5-year-old males, n = 7) New Zealand (NZ) sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) using time–depth recorders (TDRs) from 2008 to 2010 in the NZ subantarctic Auckland Islands. Diving ability (e.g. dive depth, duration and bottom time per dive) improved with age and mass. However, the percentage of each dive spent at the bottom, along with percentage time at sea spent diving, was comparable between younger and lighter juveniles and older and heavier juveniles. These suggest that younger and older juveniles expend similar foraging effort in terms of the amount of time spent underwater. Only, 5-year-old male juveniles dove to adult female depths and durations and had the highest foraging efficiency at depths >250 m. It appears that juvenile NZ sea lions attain adult female diving ability at around 5 years of age (at least in males), but prior to this, their performance is limited. Overall, the restricted diving capabilities of juvenile NZ sea lions may limit their available foraging habitat and ability to acquire food at deeper depths. The lower diving ability of juvenile NZ sea lions compared to adults, along with juvenile-specific constraints, should be taken into consideration for the effective management of this declining, nationally critical species.

Resource competition between fisheries and marine mammal continue to raise concern worldwide. Understanding this complex conflict requires data on spatial and dietary overlap of marine mammal and fisheries. In Uruguay the South American sea lions population has been dramatically declining over the past decade. The reasons for this population decline are unknown but may include the following: (1) direct harvesting; (2) reduced prey availability and distribution as a consequence of environmental change; or (3) biological interaction with fisheries. This study aims to determine resource overlap and competition between South American sea lions (SASL, Otaria flavescens, n=10) and the artisanal fisheries (AF), and the coastal bottom trawl fisheries (CBTF). We integrated data on sea lions diet (scat analysis), spatial and annual consumption estimates; and foraging behavior-satellite-tracking data from lactating SASL with data on fishing effort areas and fisheries landings. We found that lactating SASL are benthic divers and forage in shallow water within the continental shelf. SASL's foraging areas overlapped with CBTF and AF fisheries operational areas. Dietary analysis indicated a high degree of overlap between the diet of SASL and the AF and CBTF fisheries catch. The results of our work show differing degrees of spatial resource overlap with AF and CBTF, highlighting that there are differences in potential impact from each fishery; and that different management/conservation approaches may need to be taken to solve the fisheries-SASL conflict.

In this study 308 milk samples were collected and analyzed from 181 individual female New Zealand sea lions (NZ sea lions; Phocarctos hookeri) breeding on Enderby Island (Auckland Islands). Samples were collected from the 1st part of early lactation (January and February) over a period of 7 years (1997, 1999–2003, and 2005). The effect of year, month, and maternal characteristics (body mass, body condition index [BCI], and age class) on the composition of milk was evaluated using a mixed model for repeated measures. The gross composition (± SD) of the milk was lipid (21.3% ± 8.1%), protein (9.4% ± 2.4%), water (67.9% ± 8.8%), ash (0.48% ± 0.06%), and energy content (10.3 ± 3.2 kJ/g). Overall, the quality of milk of the NZ sea lions in this study was relatively lower in solids and fats than that of other pinnipeds and, in particular, other sea lion species. There were significant effects of year and month on the concentration of lipids in milk, and of year and maternal age class on maternal body m...

Although human activities are known to affect the social behaviour of group-living animals, the resilience of animals' social structure to disturbance is poorly understood. In the 1990s, bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops aduncus , in Moreton Bay, Australia, formed two distinct social communities (‘trawler’ and ‘nontrawler dolphins’) based on foraging interactions (or lack thereof) with commercial prawn trawlers. Members of the two communities almost never associated, despite overlapping home ranges. Since then, changes to fisheries legislation have substantially reduced trawling in Moreton Bay. We used association analyses and social network metrics to compare patterns of sociality among bottlenose dolphins across two periods: 1997–1999 (during trawling) and 2008–2010 (post trawling). Over this decade, their social network became less differentiated and more compact (average geodesic distance between individuals decreased), with significantly more and stronger associations between individuals (mean and maximum half-weight indices increased). The previously described partitioning into two communities has disappeared, with former ‘trawler’ and ‘nontrawler dolphins’ now dispersed over the entire social network and associating with each other. This restructuring suggests that although fisheries can influence the social behaviour of bottlenose dolphins, their social structure represents a complex adaptive system that is resilient to disturbance.

A common issue faced in wildlife management is how to assess the uncertainty of potential impacts on the viability of a species or population. The pup production of New Zealand (NZ) sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) has declined 50% in the last 12 years at their main breeding area, the Auckland Islands. The two major known atypical impacts on NZ sea lions are as follows: (1) the direct mortality as bycatch of trawling and (2) bacterial epizootics, which can affect reproduction and mortality. Both of these impacts include high levels of uncertainty, with fisheries data being variable due to percentage observer coverage and the effect of sea lion exclusion devises, while the timing and severity of bacterial epizootics are not predictable. In this paper, an age-structured model of the NZ sea lion population at the Auckland Islands was built to examine the predicted effects of fisheries mortality and catastrophes (bacterial epizootics), both separately and then combined, on population viability over a 100-year period using the VORTEX population viability analysis programme. These models are then compared against 15 years of empirical field data to determine the actual level of impacts being observed. Model results indicate that although naturally occurring epizootics reduce the growth rate of the population, it does not cause a decline in the Auckland Island population. However, sustained fisheries bycatch at current estimated levels, particularly considering its potential impact on adult female survival, could result in a population decline and possible functional extinction over the modelled time period.

Female New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri (Gray, 1844)) at the Auckland Islands (remnant populations) are the deepest and longest diving otariids. These remnant populations are found at the margin of the historical range of the species. We hypothesized that diving behaviours of animals in the core of their historical range is less extreme owing to a better marine habitat. All female New Zealand sea lions (n = 13, aged 2-14 years) born on the Otago Peninsula (initial re- colonising population) were equipped with time-depth recorders during April and May 2008, 2009, and 2010. The mean dive depth was 20.2 ± 24.5 m and mean dive duration was 1.8 ± 1.1 min, some of the lowest values reported for otariids. Otago female New Zealand sea lions did not exhibit two distinct diving specialisations as reported at the Auckland Islands. Otago adult females exceeded calculated aerobic dive limits in 7.1% of dives compared with 68.7% at the Auckland Islands. The contrasting differences in diving behaviour between Otago and the Auckland Islands suggest that Otago represents a better marine habitat for New Zealand sea lions, with food easily accessible to animals of all ages. Resume : Les lions de mer de Nouvelle-Zelande (Phocarctos hookeri (Gray, 1844)) femelles des iles Auckland (populations vestigiales) sont les otariides qui font les plongees les plus profondes et les plus longues. Ces populations vestigiales se re- trouvent a la marge de l'aire de repartition historique de l'espece. Nous avancons l'hypothese selon laquelle le comporte- ment de plongee des animaux au milieu de leur aire de repartition historique est moins extreme parce que l'habitat marin y est de meilleure qualite. Nous avons muni toutes les femelles de lions de mer de Nouvelle-Zelande (n = 13, âgees de 2 a 14 ans) nees sur la peninsule d'Otago (population initiale de recolonisation) d'enregistreurs de profondeur en fonction du temps en avril et mai de 2008, 2009 et 2010. La profondeur moyenne de plongee etait de 20,2 ± 24,5 m et la duree moyenne des plongees 1,8 ± 1,1 min, parmi les valeurs les plus faibles rapportees chez les otariides. Les lions de mer de Nouvelle-Zelande femelles d'Otago ne possedent pas deux specialisations de plongee distinctes comme on le signale aux iles Auckland. Les femelles adultes d'Otago depassent les limites de la plongee aerobie dans 7,1 % des cas par comparaison a 68,7 % des cas aux iles Auckland. Les differences contrastees dans les comportements de plongee entre Otago et les iles Auckland laissent croire qu'Otago represente un meilleur habitat marin pour les lions de mer de Nouvelle-Zelande, avec de la nourriture facilement disponible aux animaux de tous âges. (Traduit par la Redaction)

Terrestrial habitat is important for breeding in most pinnipeds. On land, most species remain near the shore, but New Zealand (NZ) sea lions, Phocarctos hookeri, oftenrestinlandupto1.5kmfromthesea.OnlythreebreedingareasofNZsealions exist today after the species was extirpated from its historical range (NZ mainland). The study was conducted at the Sandy Bay breeding colony, Auckland Islands, between December 2002 and March 2003. We used daily Global Positioning System locations of breeding females with pups and mapping in a Geographic