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People’s proclivity for favoring their ingroups over outgroups has negative consequences for individuals, groups, and societies. Social psychologists have explored a variety of techniques to reduce these intergroup biases. Emerging research suggests that mindfulness may be effective for this purpose. Mindfulness is defined as present-moment attention and awareness with an accepting attitude, and it is often cultivated through meditation. Our systematic review of the mindfulness-intergroup literature suggests that, across the heterogeneity of paradigms, mindfulness attenuates intergroup bias. Supporting this supposition, for all studies in the current review, regardless of operationalization of mindfulness (i.e., mindfulness-based intervention, brief mindfulness induction, expert meditators, dispositional mindfulness), the overall effect size was g = +.29 ( k-number of studies = 36; 95% CI [0.20, 0.39]; Z = 5.94, p < .0001), suggesting a small but significant effect of mindfulness on improved levels of intergroup bias. In the current work, we review the eligible studies and their findings in detail and conclude by discussing critical issues and implications for future research.

Background: Adults with multiple sclerosis (MS) experience many complex symptoms. However, research is lacking on the best method to record their symptom experience. The primary goal of this study was to test the feasibility of journal writing to capture the description of core symptoms experienced by adults with MS. A secondary goal was to collect self-report symptom data to assess concordance between the journal entries and MS-Related Symptom Checklist (MS-RS) scores. Methods: A preselected group of participants (n = 5) from the total sample of 16 participants with MS were asked to complete the revised MS-RS and Web-based journal writing for 20 minutes per day for 4 consecutive days over a 4-week period. Feasibility was evaluated by journal completion rates. Results: Most participants found journal writing acceptable as a method for writing about symptoms. Participants were able to write about symptoms that formed clusters: unpredictable physical alterations and unpredictable sensory and emotional changes. Likewise, participants reported frequent fatigue, difficulty sleeping, heat intolerance, and difficulty concentrating/cognitive problems from the revised MS-RS. Disconcordance between revised MS-RS data and journal entries included lack of disclosure of difficulty sleeping and “pins and needles” in the journals. Conclusions: Preliminary findings from this study provide the personal perspectives of core symptoms experienced by adults with MS. These results provide preliminary evidence of the feasibility of journal writing, along with self-report survey, to describe symptoms in adults with MS.

Background Mindfulness-based art therapy (MBAT) has been shown to provide a strategy for adults with multiple sclerosis (MS) to self-manage their symptoms. There is a need for the use of an MBAT intervention that can be delivered in any setting for adults with MS. The purpose of this pilot feasibility study was to test the feasibility and acceptability of an MBAT intervention delivered via videoconference. Methods We developed an MBAT intervention to be delivered by videoconference to adults with MS recruited from an academic center registry. We also conducted phone interviews to collect acceptability data. Results Most of the participants (n = 5) were very positive about the MBAT video sessions and stated content as clear and easy to follow and understand. The time and delivering method were acceptable. Conclusion Mindfulness-based art therapy sessions delivered through videoconference are acceptable and feasible for adults with MS.

The Interpersonal Mindfulness Scale (IMS) is a recently developed measure to assess mindfulness in the context of interpersonal interactions. The IMS showed promising psychometric properties and is considered to be a trait measure, but its temporal reliability and ability to distinguish trait from state have not been rigorously examined using appropriate methods. Generalizability theory (G-theory) is increasingly used to differentiate between trait and state aspects and identify sources of error affecting a measure. This trait/state distinction is important because it is required for evaluation of long-term effects of mindfulness-based training, especially those targeting interpersonal relationships. Responses of 116 participants who completed the scale at three occasions, with 1-month intervals, were analyzed using G-theory and person by item by occasion longitudinal observation design. The 27-item IMS demonstrated strong reliability and generalizability of scores across persons and occasions in measuring interpersonal mindfulness as a trait with G-coefficients of 0.84-0.91. Individual subscales were less reliable. Further investigation combining the most stable items into a trait-only measure did not result in a more reliable measure, nor did combining the least stable items into a state-only measure. This study supported good psychometric properties of the full IMS as a measure of a trait with the total scores generalizable across people and occasions. These findings suggest that the IMS total trait scores can be used to reliably evaluate long-term effects of interventions aiming to enhance interpersonal mindfulness.

Young breast cancer survivors (YBCS) face unique challenges in coping with disease, distress, and relationship concerns. The purposes of this study were to understand the acceptability and feasibility of an online Mindfulness-Based Intervention (MBI) for YBCS and their partners (i.e., Couples Mindfulness-Based Intervention: C-MBI) and to compare the effectiveness of the C-MBI to a closely-matched control, an online MBI for individuals (I-MBI).YBCS and their partners were recruited. Couples were randomly assigned to an 8-week C-MBI (couples = 41) or to I-MBI (couples = 36), which included one-hour video modules, a manual, and guided-meditation audios. Both couple members participated in the C-MBI; only the YBCS participated in the control I-MBI. Participants answered surveys about individual- and couple-level functioning at baseline and post-intervention.Online delivery was shown to be feasible and acceptable. For YBCS and their partners, levels of perceived stress, anxiety, depression, and fatigue were lower after the intervention, in both conditions. Unexpectedly, however, participating in the C-MBI appeared to have detrimental effects on dyadic adjustment and relationship quality.Although YBCS and their partners reported online delivery was acceptable and benefited well-being, for couple-based MBIs to have benefits for relationship functioning, it may be necessary for couples to have the support of other couples and an instructor. Online delivery may be particularly acceptable and effective for clinical populations, including YBCS. Medical professionals may be more likely to recommend online-MBI programs to cancer survivors, because the programs are of little or no cost.

We propose that awe has multifaceted relations with existential isolation, a feeling of separation between the self and others or the world. Three studies examined the relation between awe and existential isolation via feelings of small self (vastness, self-size, self-perspectives) and a sense of connectedness. Awe (vs. a control topic) was induced either using virtual reality (Study 1) or a recall task (Studies 2 and 3) and was indirectly associated with higher and lower levels of existential isolation through differing pathways. Awe was associated with lower feelings of existential isolation via an increased sense of vastness, which in turn predicted greater connectedness; whereas awe was associated with higher feelings of existential isolation via increased sense of feeling small, which in turn predicted lower connectedness. This work advances understanding of the complex nature of awe—revealing its competing effects on the self and the social connectedness pathways through which awe can influence existential isolation.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and mental health disorders contribute to significant healthcare expenses. Lifestyle approaches that empower and enable patients to participate in their recovery are needed with the increasing complexity of cardiac patients. Traditional Tamil medical practice of Siddha self-inquiry meditation targets holistic health through intuitive lifestyle transformation. We describe 4 complex cardiac patients who explored Siddha based Hunger Gratitude Experience (HUGE) mindful eating and reported elevated levels of optimism and deeper experience of life as outlined by the 5000-year-old secular Siddha medical tradition. We cannot exclude the role of suggestion and placebo effect in descriptive series. However, the simultaneous improvement in physical health and emotional wellbeing along with demonstrated resilience against unforeseen adversities suggests this is Uvagai, the true essence of Siddha higher consciousness. Uvagai is extreme happiness and may be accessible universally with little formal training and targets positive psychology to improve wellbeing. While flow and bliss states are transient transcendental experiences, Uvagai may be more profound and therapeutic in CVD despite age and comorbidities. Seeking Uvagai can potentially overcome health disparities, including rural, minority, and underprivileged populations for better health. HUGE allows CVD patients to safely engage in Uvagai, experience higher consciousness and intuitively sustain lifestyle transformation.

Existing trait mindfulness scales primarily assess mindfulness as it occurs outside interpersonal contexts. To more fully understand the possible relational benefits of mindfulness, the authors propose the construct of interpersonal mindfulness—mindfulness as it occurs during interpersonal interactions. The current work describes psychometric development and evaluation of an individual difference measure of interpersonal mindfulness, the interpersonal mindfulness scale (IMS). Exploratory and confirmatory multigroup factor analyses across five independent samples (N = 2085) revealed a hierarchical solution in which four first-order factors were components of a single higher-order interpersonal mindfulness factor. The four resulting subscales were named Presence, Awareness of Self and Others, Nonjudgmental Acceptance, and Nonreactivity. Study 2 showed acceptable test–retest reliability of the IMS over a 1-month period, and study 3 revealed that, among experienced meditation practitioners, greater years of meditation practice, frequency of meditation practice, and number of meditation retreats attended were associated with higher IMS scores. Study 4 provided evidence for convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of the IMS using partial correlations, partialling out the shared variance of trait mindfulness, with intrapersonal, interpersonal, and relationship functioning variables. The value of this measure and construct for stimulating future research on the social consequences of being mindful while interacting with others is discussed with special regard to understanding the context of healthy relationships.

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-1-gpi-10.1177_1368430220978694 for Mindfulness and intergroup bias: A systematic review by Danielle L. Oyler, Mollie A. Price-Blackshear, Steven D. Pratscher and B. Ann Bettencourt in Group Processes & Intergroup Relations

Background and purpose Many people with chronic medical conditions experience symptoms that are complex and negatively impact their quality of life (QOL). This review and meta-analysis examined the benefits of mindfulness based art therapy (MBAT) to relieve symptoms. Methods Included were studies that (a) evaluated an MBAT intervention in adults, (b) included a sufficient effect size and control group, and (c) assessed symptoms and QOL outcomes. Results Fourteen studies sampling adolescents and adults met inclusion criteria. Participants who received MBAT interventions reported significant improvements in psychological and physical symptoms indices compared to controls; the meta-analysis MBAT interventions revealed a medium effect size whereas that for controls the effect size was equivalent to zero. Conclusion MBAT is a promising intervention for symptom relief. However, the literature is limited by the small number of studies. Randomized controlled trials with larger samples are needed to validate findings.

In prior literature, intergroup contact has been associated with better attitudes toward outgroups, but intergroup anxiety mediates this relationship. Higher anxiety is associated with less-favorable outgroup attitudes. We hypothesized that this meditational association would be moderated by frequency of mindfulness and contemplative practices. Study 1 surveyed Christian, Hindu, and Muslim college students in India regarding their frequency of practices, intergroup contact, intergroup anxiety, and attitudes (i.e., favorability and trait ratings) about primary and secondary outgroups. Study 2 measured these same variables with White/European, African, and Hispanic American adults. The results showed that participants that reported higher intergroup anxiety reported more negative outgroup attitudes. This relationship, however, was moderated by mindfulness-type practices: among participants who frequently engaged in these practices, this association was reduced compared with those who reported little or no mindfulness-type practices. The findings suggest that mindfulness and contemplative practices may help people regulate feelings of intergroup anxiety, which may in turn reduce the likelihood that intergroup anxiety exacerbates negative attitudes toward outgroups.

Objective Despite the efficacy of clinical treatments (eg, adjuvant hormonal therapy) for breast cancer survivors (BCS), nonadherence rates remain high, increasing the risk of recurrence and mortality. The current study tested a theoretical model of medical nonadherence that proposes depression to be the most proximal predictor of medical nonadherence among BCS. Methods Breast cancer survivors were recruited from radiation clinics in Missouri. Survey data were collected 12 months after the end of primary treatment. The sample size included 133 BCS. Results Findings show substantial support for the model, demonstrating that depression mediated the relation between physical symptoms, cognitive symptoms, social support, and adherence to medication. This finding was replicated with a measure of mood disturbance. Conclusions These findings support the prediction that medication nonadherence among BCS multiply determined process and have compelling implications for healthcare providers and interventions designed to increase medication adherence among BCS.

We hypothesized that negatively valenced expectancy violations about the quality of 1's life would predict negative emotionality. We tested this hypothesis in a 4-wave longitudinal study of breast cancer survivors. The findings showed that higher levels of negatively valenced expectancy violation, at earlier time points, were associated with greater negative emotionality, at later time points. Implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

It is important to identify predictors of psychological health among breast cancer patients that can be relatively easily identified by medical care providers. This article investigates the role of one class of such potential predictors: easily identified demographics that have potential social and/ or practical implications. Specifically, we examined whether income, marital status, presence of children in the home, education, travel distance, age and rurality interact with time to predict psychological health over the first year post diagnosis. Two hundred and twenty five breast cancer patients receiving radiation treatment completed four surveys over the course of 13 months that included measures of both their physical health and depressive symptoms. The results revealed that women who were not married had children living in the home or had to travel long distances to receive radiation treatment reported higher levels of depressive symptoms across the entire study. Women with lower incomes reported increased depressive symptoms, but only after the completion of treatment. Younger women reported elevated depressive symptoms during initial treatment, but this effect dissipated after the completion of treatment. The current results suggest that demographic patient characteristics may indeed be useful in identifying both when and for whom depressive symptoms are particularly likely to be problematic.

The authors propose that competence need fulfillment within valued role domains (i.e., spouse, parent, worker) will account, in part, for associations between autonomy and relatedness need fulfillment and psychological health. Testing these assertions in cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys of women in two independent community samples, the findings are the first to formally examine whether the satisfaction of competence needs within social roles accounts for associations between other types of need satisfaction and affective outcomes as well as depressive symptomology. Evidence supporting the hypothesis was stronger when examining individuals’ affective health as compared to their depressive symptoms. Implications of the findings are discussed with regard to need fulfillment within social roles.

The current study examined whether the association between perceived sexual stigma and psychological distress is influenced by individuals' level of identity disclosure and their typical coping strategies. Regression analyses were conducted with data from a survey of 79 gay men and lesbians. Results revealed a 3-way interaction between participants' perceived level of stigma, the extent of their identity disclosure, and their utilization of avoidant coping strategies in predicting their endorsement of depressive symptoms. Findings also revealed an interaction between participants' perceived level of stigma, the extent of their identity disclosure, and their utilization of problem-solving coping strategies in predicting their endorsement of depressive symptoms. The implications are discussed with regard to various models of minority stress.

Purpose/objectives To determine the feasibility and effectiveness of implementing an in-home expressive-writing intervention among breast cancer survivors living in urban and rural areas. Design Women who had completed radiation therapy were selected to participate in either expressive writing or a usual-care control condition. Setting All materials were completed in the privacy of participants' homes. Sample Of the 57 breast cancer survivors recruited, 40 participated in the writing intervention. An additional 40 women were assigned to the control group. Methods Participants completed measures of physical and psychological health at two time points prior to writing and at two follow-up time points three and nine months after writing. Main research variables Participation rates and physical and psychological health. Findings Results showed that engaging in a single in-home writing session for women with breast cancer was feasible and showed significant improvements in physical and psychological health compared to control three months (but not nine months) after writing. Although no difference was found in effectiveness of the intervention between women living in urban versus rural areas, rural women showed slightly higher participation rates. Conclusions The results illustrate the utility of employing remotely administered expressive-writing interventions for breast cancer survivors. Implications for nursing Healthcare professionals who wish to use writing to facilitate improvements in their patients may suggest that patients write at multiple time points, offer for the intervention to be completed at home, and target rural populations in particular.

Previous research has focused on the influence of HIV-related stigma for the psychological adjustment and physical health of persons with HIV/AIDS. Few studies, however, have examined the impact of HIV-related stigma on close relationships where one or both couple members have HIV/AIDS. The current review will integrate previous research findings to substantiate a relationship-oriented theoretical model of HIV-related stigma that delineates interpersonal variables important for understanding the influence of types of HIV-related stigma on couple-level as well as relevant individual-level outcomes. In doing so, supportive evidence is presented from the extant quantitative and qualitative literature that has assessed or examined HIV-affected couple members' experiences with HIV-related stigma. Implications from this review are presented for researchers who examine issues related to HIV-related stigma.

This research was designed to understand heterosexual men's interpersonal reactions toward a gay male individual and to examine how threat and pre-existing antigay prejudice impact these encounters. In one experiment, we manipulated the ostensible sexual orientation of an assigned work partner and assessed participants' perceptions of threat indirectly, using a measure of psychological distancing. Results revealed that, regardless of antigay prejudice, participants psychologically distanced more from the gay male than from the heterosexual male. In the second experiment, we manipulated threat and the sexual orientation of the work partner to examine aggressive responding toward the work partner. Participants exposed to a threat to their masculinity behaved more aggressively toward the gay work partner, regardless of their level of antigay prejudice.

This research investigates why cross-cutting role assignments, compared to those that converge, may worsen the intergroup attitudes of numerical majorities. Study 1 manipulated the numerical representation of groups and role assignments in a cooperative setting. As predicted, when the cross-cut role condition included the reintroduction of the numerical imbalance, the intergroup attitudes of majorities were more favorable than when the cross-cut condition did not reintroduce this discrepancy. Also, Study 1 showed that the intergroup attitudes of the majority were more positive when roles converged. Study 2 compared a convergent condition to one with converging roles that also reduced the salience of the majority’s numerical advantage. The results for this convergent-reduced-salience condition mimicked that of the cross-cut condition, revealing less positive majority attitudes. In both studies, results suggest that the processes of ingroup identification and relative ingroup homogeneity may mediate the effect of role assignments on ingroup bias. The findings are discussed in terms of the implications for cooperative interventions designed to improve intergroup attitudes.

A meta-analysis that included more than 1,100 effect sizes tested the predictions of three theoretical perspectives that explain evaluative extremity in social judgment: complexity-extremity theory, subjective group dynamics model, and expectancy-violation theory. The work seeks to understand the ways in which group-based information interacts with person-based information to influence extremity in evaluations. Together, these three theories point to the valence of person-based information, group membership of the evaluated targets relative to the evaluator, status of the evaluators’ ingroup, norm consistency of the person-based information, and incongruency of person-based information with stereotype-based expectations as moderators. Considerable support, but some limiting conditions, were found for each theoretical perspective. Implications of the results are discussed.

The authors conducted a comprehensive review to understand the relation between personality and aggressive behavior, under provoking and nonprovoking conditions. The qualitative review revealed that some personality variables influenced aggressive behavior under both neutral and provocation conditions, whereas others influenced aggressive behavior only under provocation. Studies that assessed personality variables and that directly measured aggressive behavior were included in the quantitative review. Analyses revealed that trait aggressiveness and trait irritability influenced aggressive behavior under both provoking and neutral conditions but that other personality variables (e.g., trait anger, Type A personality, dissipation-rumination) influenced aggressive behavior only under provoking conditions. The authors discuss possible relations between these patterns of aggressive behavior and the personality dimensions of Agreeableness and Neuroticism and consider implications for theories of aggression.

The purpose of this research is to examine how Whites respond to African Americans who differ in their attitudes about racism and strategies for handling racism. In one condition, White participants read about an African American student who described racism as a minor problem and expressed an individualistic strategy for dealing with it (bargainer). In another condition, the student described racism as a large problem and endorsed a more collective strategy (challenger). Results showed that the bargainer was perceived more favorably; however, participants low in modern racism gave higher favorability ratings to the challenger than did those high in modem racism. Results are discussed in terms of the limitations of the bargainer approach, as well as its appeal to Whites.

The present study examines the ways in which satisfaction with health care may be associated with the lives of rural women. One hundred thirty one rural women between the ages of 45 and 70 years completed measures of community esteem, life satisfaction, satisfaction with health care, health status, and mood. The results showed that rural women's satisfaction with their health care was associated with the extent to which they hold their community in esteem and their degree of life satisfaction. Moreover, women who had poor health were less satisfied with the available health care than were healthier women. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the well-being of rural communities in general.

This set of studies compares the effects of choice among partners versus assignment to partner in an outcome-dependent context. In both studies, White participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions. In the first condition participants were assigned to a White partner, in a second condition they were assigned to a Black partner, and in a third condition they were given a choice between a Black and a White partner. Regardless of condition, all participants read essentially equivalent information about the targets. Results showed that participants given a choice generally preferred the White partner (especially if they held negative attitudes toward Blacks in general) and, rated her more favorably, whereas those assigned to a partner tended to rate their assigned partner more favorably regardless of race. Those given a choice of partner also construed their chosen partner more positively and rated her as more similar to themselves. In contrast, however, those assigned to a partner tended not to con...

Five candidate measures of psychological need-satisfaction were evaluated as predictors of high positive and low negative mood within the group, intrinsic motivation for group activities, and high commitment to the group. Consistent with self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1991), personal autonomy and interpersonal relatedness both predicted positive outcomes. Consistent with optimal distinctiveness theory (Brewer, 1991), feeling included within the group, feeling personally distinctive within the group, and feeling that the group is distinctive compared to other groups, also predicted positive outcomes. Simultaneous regression analyses indicated that the five needs were differentially related to the different well-being indicators, and also suggested that group inclusion may be the most important need to satisfy within group contexts. Supplementary analyses showed that members of formal groups felt less personal autonomy, but more group distinctiveness, compared to informal group members.

This work examines the moderating effects of status stability, legitimacy, and group permeability on in-group bias among high- and low-status groups. These effects were examined separately for evaluative measures that were relevant as well as irrelevant to the salient status distinctions. The results support social identity theory and show that high-status groups are more biased. The meta-analysis reveals that perceived status stability, legitimacy, and permeability moderate the effects of group status. Also, these variables interacted in their influences on the effect of group status on in-group bias, but this was only true for irrelevant evaluative dimensions. When status was unstable and perceived as illegitimate, low-status groups and high-status groups were equally biased when group boundaries were impermeable, compared with when they were permeable. Implications for social identity theory as well as for intergroup attitudes are discussed.

This study examines the relationship between allocentrism and subjective well-being among African Americans and European Americans. In addition, for these groups we tested the relationship between idiocentrism and subjective well-being. Eighty-four African Americans and 122 European Americans completed measures of allocentrism, idiocentrism, self-esteem, extraversion, life satisfaction, and general positive affect. The results show that the relationship between allocentrism and subjective well-being is of greater magnitude for African Americans than for European Americans. Similarly, there is a tendency for idiocentrism to be more highly negatively related to subjective well-being for European Americans than for African Americans. The results are discussed in terms of Baldwin and Hopkins’s theory of African American and European American worldview.

These studies investigate whether group salience contributes to the greater in-group favouritism expressed by numerical minorities after intergroup cooperation, as compared with majorities. In Study 1, using real social categories, situationally heightened salience exacerbated bias only among numerical minorities. Using real social categories, Study 2 confirmed the predicted effect of numerical representation on a measure of group salience as well as measures of anxiety and cohesion. Study 3 created artificial groups of equal and unequal size. In this study, compared to majority status, numerical minority status induced stronger perceptions of in-group salience and cohesion as well as greater in-group bias. Moreover, a regression analysis supported the prediction that salience mediates greater in-group positivity among numerical minorities.

This paper investigates whether persons' cognitive representations of valued group identities differ in content from their representations of their personal identity. The results showed differences between participants' qualitative descriptions of their group identities and their personal identities. Values, emotions, and personal relationships were more often listed in group identity representations than in personal identity representations. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study investigates whether the greater in-group favoritism typically expressed by numerical minorities could be minimized by cross-cutting role assignment to the tasks in a cooperative setting. Study 1 manipulated the numerical representation of two groups and role assignment to a team task. The results showed that cross-cut role assignment decreased the in-group bias of both minority and majority groups, compared to convergent role assignment. Study 2 further examined the benefits of cross-cut assignment while controlling interaction among in-group and out-group members. The outcomes of Study 2 replicated those of Study 1 and showed that even without prior interaction during the cross-cut task, both minorities and majorities were less biased when role assignments cross-cut category membership. Moreover, the results showed that whereas both social category salience and identification were affected by role assignment, only identification mediated the effect of role assignment on in-group bias.

This study investigated whether the legitimacy of the status structure influences the interactive effects of group status and numerical representation on intergroup attitudes. Participants were randomly assigned to conditions in a 2 (level of status; high, low) by 2 (legitimacy of status; legitimate, illegitimate) by 2 (numerical representation; majority, minority) between-subjects design. The predicted three-way interaction indicated that, when status was illegitimate, majority groups with high status showed more ingroup bias than majority groups with low status, but minority groups with high status did not show more ingroup bias than their counterparts with low status. By comparison, when status was legitimate, high-status groups were more biased than low-status groups, regardless of numerical representation.

Investigates whether the greater ingroup favoritism typically expressed by numerical minorities, compared with numerical majorities, could be minimized by encouraging an interpersonal social orientation during intergroup cooperation. Study 1 examined how the type of social orientation adopted during cooperation affected the intergroup attitudes of numerical majorities and minorities. The outcomes of Study 1 showed that, compared to both a no-focus control and an interpersonally focused condition, a task-focus orientation was associated with an increase in ingroup bias among numerical majorities but a decrease in ingroup bias among numerical minorities. The results of Study 2 replicated those of Study 1 and showed support for the hypothesis that the effect of social orientation on ingroup bias among numerical majority and minority groups is mediated by ingroup identification and cohesion. Implications of these findings for understanding numerical representation effects and cooperative intervention outcomes are discussed.

The present studies examined the relationship between allocentrism and subjective well-being. In addition, the mediational role of collective self-esteem for ascribed and acquired groups was tested. Study 1 showed that the reliable relation between allocentrism and life satisfaction was mediated by private, public, and membership collective self-esteem. Study 2 showed that once personal self-esteem was controlled, only private and public collective self-esteem mediated the relation between allocentrism and subjective well-being.

Examines the role of category-based expectancy violation in explaining extreme evaluations of ingroup and outgroup members. In three experiments, descriptions about ingroup and outgroup targets were varied to manipulate expectancy violation. Participants evaluated the global favorability and rated the trait characteristics of either an ingroup or an outgroup target. In addition, they indicated the extent to which the targets violated category-based expectancies. Experiment 1, which included two different scenarios that violated category-based expectancies, showed that expectancy violation affected global evaluations of target favorability and that measured expectancies mediated these evaluations. Experiment 2 replicated Experiment 1 and showed that ingroup and outgroup targets were evaluated similarly when category-based expectancies were not violated. Experiment 3 presented positive job resumes that violated or did not violate stereotyped expectancies for female and male job applicants. The results showed that female and male targets were evaluated more positively when they violated stereotyped expectations for their gender group and that these outcomes were not modified by the subject's group membership. The results are discussed in terms of expectancy-violation theory as well as assumed-characteristics and cognitive-complexity theories.

Meta-analytically examines experimental studies that include violent cues in the setting and assesses the effects of aversive provocation on gender differences in aggression. The results show that when violent cues are present, men are more aggressive than women under neutral unprovoked conditions. However, when they are exposed to both violent cues and aversive provocation, men and women are equally aggressive. Differences in individual reactivity to violent cues as well as the type of aggressive response and the sex of the target also affected the magnitude of gender differences in the presence of violent cues. Aggr. Behav. 23:447–456, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

A number of theoretical perspectives suggest that expectancy violations (EVs) threaten a person’s sense of meaning and prompt efforts to reinstate meaning. Yet, little to no research has explicitly examined whether EVs predict actual efforts to search for meaning. The current research redresses this gap in the literature among a sample of breast cancer survivors. The results revealed that EVs, but not life satisfaction, positively predicted the search for meaning. By comparison, the presence of meaning was predicted by both EVs and life satisfaction. Further, EVs predicted an increased search for meaning among participants who simultaneously believed that their life had high levels of meaning. Thus, personal EVs may offer a compelling framework for understanding what prompts searches for meaning.

We suggest that key components of intragroup dynamics, including coordination, motivation, and group identification, are important for determining whether a grassroots group will function well, maintain itself over time, and regularly achieve “successes” as defined by the group. These processes were examined in a case study of a grassroots peace organization. The evaluation was carried out via an interview with the director and a survey of the group's volunteers. The director's perceptions of the quality of intragroup dynamics within this group are discussed in conjunction with the responses of the surveyed volunteers. This study showed that the group puts considerable effort into coordinating their activities and implementing strategies to motivate their volunteers. Nevertheless, it appeared that the group was more purposeful in their efforts toward coordination than toward motivating members. Future research will need to involve other groups, as well as identify which specific intragroup components are most important for grassroots success.

This concluding article outlines the themes related to successful grassroots organizing that were recurrent in the other articles of this journal issue. These themes include group dynamics, characteristics of grassroots activists, intergroup coalitions, leadership and other resources, and the role of technology. In addition, this paper highlights suggestions for methodological approaches to the study of grassroots organizing. Finally, practical implications that can be drawn from studies of grassroots movements are discussed.

A survey of graduate chairpersons in psychology about the prevalence and value of mentoring relationships between psychology graduate and undergraduate students was conducted. Surveys were mailed to 235 chairpersons at colleges and universities, with 130 (55%) surveys returned. The results indicate that formal mentoring programs were rare (6%); however, a substantial percentage of respondents (75%) reported that graduate students interact informally with undergraduates on research projects. In addition, respondents estimated that a large percentage of psychology graduate students (49%) and faculty members (66%) would favor interactions in which graduate students serve as mentors to undergraduate students. Finally, possible advantages and disadvantages of such interactions are presented. Over-all, respondents endorsed significantly more advantages than disadvantages associated with this type of mentoring relationship for both graduate (48% vs 35%) and undergraduate students (54% vs 19%).