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Dans cette étude, nous mesurons l’impact de dotations d’équipements numériques mobiles sur les apprentissages des élèves et les pratiques professionnelles des enseignants et chefs d’établissement.Une part importante de l’échantillon de cette étude est constituée par des collèges bénéficiaires d’une politique d’équipement à grande échelle en France, le Plan numérique de 2015.Nous utilisons des données multidimensionnelles et inédites, collectées dans le cadre d’une étude de la DEPP visant à mesurer les effets de ces dotations à court et moyen terme (de la classe de 5e à la fin de la scolarité de collège). Celle-ci a suivi un panel de près de 5 000 élèves de la 5e à l’entrée en 2de, et a également interrogé leurs enseignants et les chefs d’établissement. L’impact de la politique sur les apprentissages des élèves est mesuré sur les compétences disciplinaires, numériques et sociocognitives (créativité, collaboration et esprit critique). Afin d’identifier l’impact causal des dotations, notre échantillon inclut des élèves, enseignants et chefs d’établissementn’ayant pas bénéficié de la politique. Nous utilisons la méthodologie de l’entropy balancing et d’autres méthodes d’appariement statistique afin de comparer ce groupe non-bénéficiaire avec le groupe bénéficiaire.

We exploit a large exogenous shock to study the determinants of college attendance and the role played by one's environment. We analyze whether, and how quickly, adolescents' college plans are adapted, explore factors leading to the adjustment, and examine how these factors ultimately impact later educational attainment. Using differences across East German cohorts induced by the timing of the German Reunification (a change for the East from state socialism to capitalist democracy), we show that shortly after relative to before that time, college plans among high-school students increased substantially, which was followed by sizable increases in the completion of the college entrance certificate five years later. Our analysis sheds light on the elasticity of beliefs and preferences of different cohorts of youths in the case of a large shock. Perceived educational returns, economic preferences ("consumerism") and sociopolitical attitudes ("individualism") adapt quickly in response to the shock and are directly linked to changes in plans and outcomes. Cohorts closer to critical educational junctions at the time of Reunification, however, adjusted their plans to a much lesser extent. While they similarly updated the expected returns to education, they exhibited a slower adjustment in their preferences relative to younger cohorts.

The preliminary results of the Longitudinal Evaluation of Activities related to Digital Education (a.k.a Élaine in French) report on the effects of allocating mobile digital equipment (mainly tablets) on student learnings in 7th and 8th grades. These equipment were especially distributed within the framework of the Digital Plan implemented from 2015, in the form of tablets, individually (individual mobile equipment - 1-to-1 tablets) or collectively (mobile classrooms - MC). At the end of 7th grade, we observe a positive effect of 1-to-1 tablets on the student results in French oral comprehension and on their digital skills. At the end of 8th grade, the results of students receiving 1-to-1 tablets also show a positive evolution in French reading comprehension and in mathematics compared to non-equipped students. In general, the effects measured two years after the distribution of 1-to-1 tablets correspond to the progression of one rank in the class for a median student. A positive impact of MC of the same magnitude can also be observed on mathematical and digital skills of 8th graders at the end of the school year. The first analyses also show some differentiated effects of mobile digital equipment according to student gender, their social background or the social composition of their school. Data on the use of digital equipment inside and outside the classroom, as well as the adoption of equipment by teachers allow us to explore potential mechanisms. 1-to-1 tablets availability leads teachers to include digital technologies to a greater extent into their practices, while the availability of MC, on the other hand, has no effect.

Les premiers résultats de l’Évaluation Longitudinale des ActIvités liées au Numérique Éducatif (Élaine) rendent compte des effets de l’attribution d’équipements numériques mobiles (principalement des tablettes) sur les apprentissages des élèves en cinquième puis en quatrième. Ces équipements ont notamment été distribués dans le cadre du Plan numérique de 2015, sous la forme de tablettes, individuellement (équipements individuels mobiles – EIM) ou collectivement (classes mobiles – CM). En fin de cinquième, on observe un effet positif des EIM sur les résultats des élèves en compréhension orale du français et sur leurs compétences numériques. En fin de quatrième, les résultats des élèves bénéficiaires d’EIM connaissent également une évolution positive en compréhension écrite du français et en mathématiques par rapport aux élèves non équipés. De manière générale, les effets mesurés deux ans après la distribution des EIM correspondent à la progression d’un rang dans la classe pour un élève médian. Un impact positif des CM de même ampleur s’observe également sur les compétences mathématiques et numériques des élèves de quatrième en fin d’année scolaire. Les premières analyses montrent par ailleurs certains effets différenciés des équipements numériques mobiles selon le sexe, l’origine sociale des élèves ou la composition sociale du collège. Les données renseignant les usages des équipements en classe et en dehors du collège ainsi que l’appropriation des équipements par les enseignants permettent d’explorer des mécanismes potentiels. La disponibilité d’EIM conduit les enseignants à intégrer davantage le numérique dans leurs pratiques professionnelles, tandis que la disponibilité de CM reste en revanche sans effet.

Le présent document porte sur les effets du dispositif en classe de 5e et de 4e. Il dresse une revue de la littérature permettant d’identifier les limites des études antérieures et l’apport d’ELAINE (1), avant de décrire l’intervention évaluée, le Plan numérique, et le rôle de la DEPP dans cette évaluation (2) et de détailler la méthodologie d’évaluation (3). L’échantillon et le calendrier sont décrits dans la partie 4. La partie 5 présente le matériel d’évaluation et la construction des scores et indicateurs à partir des évaluations des élèves et des enquêtes des enseignants. Les taux de participation aux deux temps de mesure sont renseignés dans la partie 6. Les parties suivantes détaillent les résultats sur l’utilisation des équipements numériques par les élèves (7), les pratiques des enseignants en lien avec les outils numériques (8) et les compétences des élèves (9). La conclusion résume les principaux messages, décrit les futures étapes et propose des pistes pour de futures recherches.

This paper explores the recent efforts by the corporate world and public policy to increase the number of women in leadership positions in the workplace. We review and empirically evaluate the "business case" for gender equality, showing some evidence in favour of it. Despite the evidence and growing support, progress towards more diversity in leadership positions has been slow. We study the importance of supply-side constraints, as well as the main diversity policies (gender quotas, mentoring and network programs, diversity training to change firm culture, and family friendly policies) that have been implemented. We focus on the effectiveness of these policies, their shortcomings, as well as potential future steps that could help guide policy.

Using a nationally representative longitudinal survey of lawyers in the U.S., we document a sizeable gap between men and women in their early aspirations to become law firm partners, despite similar early investments and educational characteristics. This aspiration gap can explain a large part of the gender promotion gap that is observed later. We propose a model to understand the role of aspirations and then empirically test its predictions. We show that aspirations create incentives to exert effort and are correlated with expectations of success and the preference for becoming a partner. We further show that aspirations are affected by early work experiences—facing harassment or demeaning comments early in the career affects long-term promotion outcomes mediated via aspirations. Our research highlights the importance of accounting for, and managing, career aspirations as an early intervention to close gender career gaps.

This paper investigates the impact of changes in the funding of higher education in England on students’ choices and outcomes. Over the last two decades – through three major reforms in 1998, 2006 and 2012 – undergraduate university education in public universities moved from being free to students and state funded to charging substantial tuition fees to all students. This was done in conjunction with the government offering generous means-tested maintenance grants and loans. Using detailed longitudinal micro-data that follows all students attending state schools in England (more than 90 percent of all schoolaged children) from lower education to higher education, we document the socio-economic distributional effects of the 2006 and 2012 policy reforms on a comprehensive set of outcomes, including enrolment, relocation decisions, selection of institution, program of study, and performance within university. For a subset of students, we track them after completing higher education, allowing us to study the labour market effects of the policy reforms. Despite the substantial higher education funding reforms, we do not find large aggregate effect on student enrolment or on other margins. Moreover, the small negative impacts found on enrolment were largely borne on those in higher parts of the wealth distribution – reducing the enrolment gap across socioeconomic groups.

This paper investigates the impact of changes in the funding of higher education in England on students' choices and outcomes. Over the last two decades – through three major reforms in 1998, 2006 and 2012 – undergraduate university education in public universities moved from being free to students and state funded to charging substantial tuition fees to all students. This was done in conjunction with the government offering generous means-tested maintenance grants and loans. Using detailed longitudinal micro-data that follows all students attending state schools in England (more than 90 percent of all school-aged children) from lower education to higher education, we document the socio-economic distributional effects of the 2006 and 2012 policy reforms on a comprehensive set of outcomes, including enrolment, relocation decisions, selection of institution, program of study, and performance within university. For a subset of students, we track them after completing higher education, allowing us to study the labor market effects of the policy reforms. Despite the substantial higher education funding reforms, we do not find large aggregate effect on student enrolment or on other margins. Moreover, the small negative impacts found on the enrolment were largely borne on those in higher parts of the wealth distribution – reducing the enrolment gap across socio-economic groups.

This paper studies the effect of providing feedback to college students on their position in the grade distribution by using a randomized control experiment. This information was updated every six months during a three-year period. In the absence of treatment, students' underestimate their position in the grade distribution. The treatment significantly improves the students' self-assessment. We find that treated students experience a significant decrease in their educational performance, as measured by their accumulated GPA and number of exams passed, and a significant improvement in their self-reported satisfaction, as measured by survey responses obtained after information is provided but before students take their exams. Those effects, however, are short lived, as students catch up in subsequent periods. Moreover, the negative effect on performance is driven by those students who underestimate their position in the absence of feedback. Those students who overestimate initially their position, if anything, respond positively.

This paper studies the effect of providing feedback to college students on their position in the grade distribution by using a natural field experiment. This information was updated every six months during a three-year period. We find that greater grades transparency decreases educational performance, as measured by the number of exams passed and GPA. However self-reported satisfaction, as measured by surveys conducted after feedback is provided but before students take their exams, increases. We provide a theoretical framework to understand these results, focusing on the role of prior beliefs, and using out-of-trial surveys to test the model. In the absence of treatment, a majority of students underestimate their position in the grade distribution, suggesting that the updated information is “good news” for many students. Moreover, the negative effect on performance is driven by those students who underestimate their position in the absence of feedback. Students who overestimate initially their position, if anything, respond positively. The performance effects are short lived - by the time students graduate, they have similar accumulated GPA and graduation rates.

This paper documents and studies the gender gap in performance among associate lawyers in the United States. Unlike other high-skilled professions, the legal profession assesses performance using transparent measures that are widely used and comparable across firms: the number of hours billed to clients and the amount of new client revenue generated. We find clear evidence of a gender gap in annual performance with respect to both measures. Male lawyers bill ten percent more hours and bring in more than twice the new client revenue than do female lawyers. We demonstrate that the differential impact across genders in the presence of young children and differences in aspirations to become a law firm partner account for a large share of the difference in performance. We also show that accounting for performance has important consequences for gender gaps in lawyers earnings and subsequent promotion. Whereas individual and firm characteristics explain up to 50 percent of the earnings gap, the inclusion of performance measures explains a substantial share of the remainder. Performance measures also explain a sizeable share of the gender gap in promotion.

This paper studies the effect of providing feedback to college students on their position in the grade distribution by using a natural field experiment. This information was updated every six months during a three-year period. We find that greater grades transparency decreases educational performance, as measured by the number of exams passed and GPA. However self-reported satisfaction, as measured by surveys conducted after feedback is provided but before students take their exams, increases. We provide a theoretical framework to understand these results, focusing on the role of prior beliefs, and using out-of-trial surveys to test the model. In the absence of treatment, a majority of students underestimate their position in the grade distribution, suggesting that the updated information is “good news” for many students. Moreover, the negative effect on performance is driven by those students who underestimate their position in the absence of feedback. Students who overestimate initially their position, if anything, respond positively. The performance effects are short lived - by the time students graduate, they have similar accumulated GPA and graduation rates.