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Introduction: The development of neurological disorders following trypanosome brain infection has been recognised for over a century. However, an ongoing endeavour persists to comprehensively understand the neurocognitive and neuropathological changes accompanying such infection and the disease progression. Efforts are ongoing to screen for effective new trypanocidal compounds. Therapies now favor activating M2 macrophages via IL-4 or IL-13 anti-inflammatory cytokines. This study aims to investigate whether prostacyclin analogue (Iloprost) treatment against CNS Trypanosoma brucei infection would beneficially affect cognitive and anxiety-like behaviours in IL-4/IL-13-expressing mice, and to determine if trypanosome-induced neurocognitive alterations can be therapeutically reversed and to elucidate the underlying molecular and epigenetic mechanisms. Methods: Sixty-four male albino Swiss mice (8-10 weeks old) were used, divided into two groups (n=32 per group): IL-4Rα-/- and wild-type (WT) littermates. At day 4 post-infection with Trypanosoma brucei brucei, both groups received intraperitoneal Iloprost (200µg/kg) for 3 days. The mice were assessed for locomotion and anxiety-like behavior. Blood samples were collected for parasitaemia and hemogram tests. Target gene transcripts in the prefrontal cortices (PFC) and hippocampal (HPC) tissues were quantified using RT-PCR. Cytokine expression and methylation profiling were assessed using ELISA and EZ DNA methylation kits. Results: IL-4R inhibition induced systemic inflammation in IL-4R-/- mice, whereas Diminazine treatment reversed decreased vertical exploration in the open field and revealed reduced anxiety-like behaviour in these animals. Molecular analysis shows IL-13 gene downregulation in both PFC and HPC. IL-4 and IL-4R genes are only downregulated in the HPC of IL-4R-/- infected mice, indicating different responses to infection in distinct brain regions. Furthermore, Iloprost and Diminazine treatments not only reversed downregulated BDNF gene expression in the PFC but also attenuated the upregulation of TNF-α genes in both brain regions, while simultaneously suppressing the presence of trypanosome parasites in the CNS parenchyma by decreasing Pfr gene expression. We show that mice with hypomethylation of IL-4, IL-4R, IL-13, and BDNF in the PFC and HPC (WT) exhibited these changes. In contrast, iloprost-infected groups (WT and IL-4R-/-) had hypermethylation of TNF-α, IL-4R, IL-4, and IL-13 in the PFC and HPC. Iloprost significantly increased NF-kB levels (P

The structural parts of brain are similar in all vertebrates, but they differ in their complexity and organization. The avian brain for instance, is organised differently compared to mammals, with variations existing in the relative size and location of their structures. The cattle egret (Bubulcus ibis) is a cosmopolitan avian species native to Africa. Despite their economic importance as excellent sentinels in assessing environmental pollutants, there is a dearth of information on their neuroanatomy. Hence, we here investigated their gross morphological features and morphometric parameters, and the cerebellar histology. Twelve transcardi-ally perfused juvenile cattle egrets were studied, with the body and brain weights and brain linear measurements considered. The brain weight constituted 0.46 % of the total body mass, with a strong positive correlation recorded between the body and brain weights (r = 0.9204). Morphologically, the brain was lissencephalic, with the corpus callosum absent and the olfactory bulbs rudimentary with no discernible division into the olfactory bulb, olfactory tract and olfactory lobe. We observed prominent sagittal eminence and vallecula telencephali, as well as an obvious fovea limbica on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres, respectively. The diencephalic structures were completely covered by telencephalon, with the pineal gland occupying the polygonal space between cerebrum, optic lobe and cerebellum. The mesencephalic tectum appeared as a large oval bilaterally bulging structure with prominent optic tracts and constituted the bulk of the midbrain. There was a dorsal extension of the fourth ventricle into the cerebellum known as the ventriculus cerebelli and the cerebellar histology presented a persistent external granular layering suggestive of a potential for adult neurogenesis. Our data has added relevant literature on the cattle egret brain and could prove useful in comparative, developmental and evolutionary avian neuroanatomy.

African savanna hare (Lepus microtis) belonging to the family Leporidae, is a placental mammal with vast economic and scientific importance ranging from the major source of protein for the teaming population to models of laboratory and genetic studies as well as valued game reserve. The aim of this study was to investigate the morphology and craniometric featuresof the skull of African savanna hare found in North-central Nigeria in an attempt to provide basic anatomical data of this wild rodent. The African savanna hare used were sampled from Gwagwalada area council, Federal capital territory, Abuja, Nigeria. Morphological and craniometric measurements were conducted on six skulls. Results showed a foramen on the nasal bone and a non-serrated lateral margin of the margo supraorbital process of the frontal bone. The maxilla was trabeculated while the temporal bone was spongy-like in appearance. The palatine appeared perforated in a W-shape. For craniometric results, the skull weight was 13.4g with the mandible and 9.5g without the mandibles. While the dorsal and ventral skull length was 10.5±0.8 and 7.3±0.9, the dorsal and ventral skull width was 3.1±0.2 and 4.0±0.2 with a dorsal and ventral skull index of 29.52 and 54.79 respectively. The orbital and cranial capacities were 5.8±0.6 and 11.2±0.4, and this could aid the vision and intelligence of this rodent. Our findings have provided baseline information on the skull morphology and craniometrics of the African savannahare, which would be of benefit in understanding morphofunctional and paleontological studies withemphasis on adaptive features necessary for domestication of this rodent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We recently reported that the excitatory/inhibitory balance of the innervation of neurons which contain the orexin/hypocretin peptides, located in the lateral hypothalamus, undergoes a remarkable process of daily rearrangement in basal conditions in mice during the periods of the animals' sleep and wake. This finding raises many questions on the regulatory mechanisms. The hypothesis was here tested that daily neuroplasticity could implicate glial cells, since, in the brain, astrocytes are notably key partners of neurons at the synaptic level, and microglia continuously extend and retract their ramifications contacting also synapses. For the present study, unperturbed adult mice and rats were sampled during the day (the period of predominant sleep in these nocturnal animals, as also assessed here with videorecording) or night. In mice, glial cells surrounding orexin neurons were investigated in the lateral hypothalamus. Astrocytes were visualized using glial fibrillary acidic protein as a marker. CX3CR1-GFP mice, in which microglial cells are tagged with green fluorescent protein, were used for the study of microglia. Diurnal changes in microglial morphology and microglia-synapse interactions were investigated in confocal microscopy with multiple immunofluorescence. Three-dimensional reconstructions of glial cells in the lateral hypothalamus revealed striking variations in relation to vigilance state. Astrocytes showed a bushy phenotype, with dense filling of the neuropil, and microglial cells were endowed with highly ramified processes especially at night, when the animals were predominantly awake. Interactions between astrocytic and microglial processes and synapses have been observed during both day and night, and the analysis and quantification of these contacts are currently in progress. Furthermore, to test the activity of microglial cells, microglia-derived microvesicles were quantified in the cerebrospinal fluid of rats, sampled at two time points in antiphase as above. These microvesicles turned out to be significantly more numerous during the period of animals' predominant activity and wakefulness than during the period of predominant rest and sleep. Altogether these sets of data reveal a diurnal fluctuation of the morphology of glial cells in the lateral hypothalamus and of the activity of microglia over the course of the day, opening novel questions on their dynamic properties in relation with behavioural output in health and disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This report describes a case of polydactyly in the hind-limb of a West African Dwarf goat kid in South West Africa. Physical examination revealed the presence of four digits in each of the hind limbs. Radiological examination and macerated bones of the animal showed a bifid shape of each metatarsal that was more prominent from the distal half of the diaphysis. This resulted in the presence of four articulating surfaces per limb at the distal extremity. Though this condition is rare in goats, we advise that continuous reporting by researchers can give a better prevalence statistics of these occurrences.