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his study presents oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) stable isotope records of two U-Th dated stalagmites from Mljet Island caves in the southern part of Croatian Adriatic. Speleothem MSM-1 from Mala špilja Cave recorded environmental changes during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 (119- 101 ka and 91–81 ka BP), MIS 4 (60–54 ka BP), MIS 3 (43–35 ka BP). Short interval (18–13.5 ka BP) during the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2) is recorded in stalagmite VSM-1 from Velika špilja Cave. δ18O and δ13C profiles display main climatic oscillations correlated within the age uncertainty with stadial–interstadial events recorded in North Greenland ice core (NGRIP) such as Dansgaard- Oeschger (DO) (25, 24, 17, 16, 15, 11, 10, 9, 8 and 7) and Heinrich event (HE) 1 revealing their impact on the paleoenvironmental conditions in the region of Croatian Eastern Adriatic. Deposition hiatuses occurred during periods of very low δ18O recorded in NGRIP ice core, indicating the adverse effect of cold (dry) conditions on speleothem deposition.

This study demonstrates the feasibility of speleothem magnetism as a paleo-hydrology proxy in speleothems growing in semi-arid conditions. Soil-derived magnetic particles in speleothems retain valuable information on the physicochemical conditions of the overlying soil, and changes in bedrock hydrology. Yet, the link between magnetic and isotopic proxies of speleothems has been only partly established. We reveal strong coupling between the inflow of magnetic particles (quantified using the magnetic flux index, IRMflux) and δ13C in two Holocene speleothems from Soreq Cave (Israel). The stalagmite record spans from ca. 9.7 to ca. 5.4 ka, capturing the warm-humid conditions associated with the early Holocene and the transition to mid-Holocene wet-dry cycles. Extremely low IRMflux during the early Holocene, indicating minimal contribution from the overlying soil, is accompanied by anomalously high δ13C (approaching bedrock values) hypothesized to be caused by high rainfall and soil erosion. By contrast, IRMflux during the mid-Holocene covaries with the saw-tooth cyclicity of δ13C and δ18O, interpreted as rapid fluctuations in rainfall amount. The peaks in IRMflux precede the negative (wet) δ13C peaks by ~60–120 yr. The apparent lag is explained as a rapid physical translocation of overlying soil particles via groundwater (high IRMflux) as a response to increasing rainfall, compared with slower soil organic matter turnover rates (10–102 yr).

Paleorainfall proxy records from the Middle East have revealed remarkable patterns of variability since the penultimate glacial period (140 ka), but the seasonality of this signal has been unresolvable. Here, seasonal-resolution oxygen isotope data from Soreq Cave speleothems suggest that summer monsoon rainfall periodically reaches as far north as Israel—well removed from the modern monsoon—at times (∼125, 105 ka) that overlap with evidence for some of the earliest modern human migrations out of Africa. These seasonal proxy data are corroborated by seasonal-resolution model output of the amount and oxygen-isotope ratio of rainfall from an isotope-enabled climate model. In contrast to the modern regional climate where rainfall is delivered predominantly in winter months along westerly storm tracks, the model suggests that during extreme peaks of summer insolation—as occurs during the last interglacial (e.g., 125, 105 ka)—regional rainfall increases due to both wetter winters and the incursion of summer monsoons. This interpretation brings clarity to regional paleoproxy records and provides important environmental context along one potential pathway of early modern human migration.

The Levant region of Israel, located along the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, is characterized by Mediterranean climate, but sixty km eastwards towards the Dead Sea Rift Valley (DSRV), the region rapidly becomes a ‘rain shadowʼ desert. Speleothems from the Mediterranean climate zone continuously grew throughout several glacial/interglacial cycles, indicating that water was always available in the unsaturated zone. Their δ18O variations match global and regional climate changes, with the Eastern Mediterranean Sea being the major control on their δ18O values, as evident from the similarity between the speleothems and the planktonic foraminifer G. ruber records. In contrast, speleothems along the central and southern segments of the DSRV grew mainly during last glacial periods coinciding with the higher stands of Lake Lisan, the precursor of the present-day Dead Sea. This paper discusses the newly discovered Zalmon Cave speleothems, located in the northern segment of the DSRV shedding light on the hydrological conditions along the rift during last glacial. Unlike speleothems located further south along the DSRV, Zalmon Cave speleothems grew both during glacial and interglacial periods. However, during last glacial their δ18O values, shifted to lower values by ∼1–2‰ relative to speleothems from central Israel coinciding also with the largest difference in δ18O values between Zalmon Cave speleothems and the marine record. The data suggest that a change of the westerlies' storm tracks occurred during most of the last glacial period, which resulted in increased rainfall in the northern DSRV providing freshwater input during the otherwise relatively ‘drierʼ glacial.

Highly resolved, well-dated paleoclimate records from the southern South African coast are needed to contextualize the evolution of the highly diverse extratropical plant communities of the Greater Cape Floristic Region (GCFR) and to assess the environmental impacts on early human hunter-gatherers. We present new speleothem stable oxygen and carbon isotope ratios (δ18Oc and δ13C) from two caves at Pinnacle Point, South Africa, covering the time between 330 and 43 ka. Composite δ18Oc and δ13C records were constructed for Staircase Cave and PP29 by combining all stable isotope analyses into a single time series and smoothing by a 3-point running mean. δ18Oc and δ13C values record changes in rainfall seasonality and the proportions of C3 and C4 plants in the vegetation, respectively. We show that in general increased summer rainfall brought about a wider spread of C4 grasses and retreat of the C3 plant–dominated GCFR communities. The occurrence of summer rainfall on the southern coast of South Africa was linked to total rainfall amounts in the interior region through tropical temperate troughs. These rainfall systems shifted the southern coastal climate toward more summer (winter) rainfall when precession was high (low) and/or the westerlies were in a northern (southern) position.

A fundamental issue in the interpretation of speleothem calcite δ18Occ records is the correct partitioning of the effects of temperature and water δ18O variations. This study explores the paleo-environmental evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (EMS) region using Soreq Cave speleothems in the last 160 ka, a period covering glacial MIS6 to the present, through the independent determinations of temperatures via carbonate clumped isotopes (Δ47) and fluid inclusion δ18Ow, δDw and d-excess values of cave water entrapped in the speleothems. The observed general agreement between the trends in water δ18Ow composition directly measured from fluid inclusions and calculated from Δ47 temperatures and δ18Occ support the robustness of the data. Δ47 temperatures, derived using a revised thermometer calibration that includes recent modifications in 17O correction, vary from high values of 20–22 °C during interglacial periods to low values of 11–12 °C in cold glacial and stadial periods. Temperatures of 19–22 °C are observed during the time of deposition in the EMS of sapropel S5 in the last interglacial MIS5e period and sapropel S1 in the early Holocene, immediately following Terminations II and I, respectively. The Soreq Cave Δ47 temperatures generally agree with previously estimated EM sea surface temperatures, in support of the absence of a significant land-sea temperature gradient. Cave water δ18Ow values show large variations (from ∼-3 to −7.5‰), with high glacial and low interglacial values. These variations are largely explained by changes in Mediterranean Sea water composition due to glacial ice melting and freshwater input during sapropel periods, combined with the effect of rainfall amounts during interglacial periods. An analysis of relative timing shows that temperature rise precedes hydrological changes in the initial stages of Termination events. Fluid inclusion d-excess values show clear variations between values similar to the Global Meteoric Water Line during cold periods and values similar to the local Eastern Mediterranean Meteoric Water Line (EMMWL) in warm periods.

Early Ahmarian, Levantine Aurignacian and Post-Levantine Aurignacian archeological assemblages show that the karstic Manot Cave, located 5 km east of the Mediterranean coast in the Western Galilee region of Israel, was intensively occupied during the Early Upper Paleolithic. The coexistence of these rich archaeological layers with speleothems in Manot Cave provides a window of opportunity for determining the relationships between climatic conditions and the nature of human activity and mobility patterns in the Western Galilee region during the Early Upper Paleolithic period. This study, based on four stalagmites that grew almost continuously from ∼75 to 26.5 ka, covers most of the last glacial, and overlaps with the human occupation of the cave. The speleothems oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotopic records indicate that climate and environmental conditions fluctuated during the last glacial, some of which correspond with Dansgaard–Oeschger (D-O) cycles 12, 10, 7 and Heinrich (H) events VI and V. Consistent with independent evidence from botanic and faunal remains, these climatic shifts brought about significant environmental changes in the region, ranging from dominant thick Mediterranean forest to more open landscape. A good correlation with less negative δ13C values is most pronounced during the Early Ahmarian time period, but there was also a change to less negative δ13C values during the Levantine Aurignacian and Post-Levantine Aurignacian industries in the Levant. These positive δ13C shifts suggest that environmental transformation towards a more open grassy landscape dominated by C4 vegetation might have played an important role in the development of these cultural entities (mainly the Early Ahmarian) in Manot Cave region.

The δ18O and δ13C records of a 230Th/U dated, 2.2-m long stalagmite from Fengyu Cave in south China provide a continuous decadal-resolution (with 3698 measurements) proxy for regional climatic and environmental conditions during 4–65 ka. This single stalagmite reveals all Heinrich cold events, most Dansgaard-Oeschger warm events, deglaciation and Holocene Optimum, generally supporting the Hulu and Dongge records. On 5000–10000 year time-scales, the δ18O and δ13C variations show strongly positive correlations (R = 0.7), reflecting that a common climatic factor controls both δ18O and δ13C of F-1. The comparison of the speleothem, ice core, insolation and marine records reveals strong linkages between N. Atlantic temperature and the Asian summer monsoon over most of the study period. However, there are some regional discrepancies between the stalagmite δ18O records following the deglaciation. Although the NH summer insolation provides the major forcing on Asian monsoon variability over orbital time-scales, the weakest summer monsoon intensity during the last glacial occurred ca. 16 ka corresponding to the Heinrich event 1; a 5–6 ky lag from the minimum insolation during the Last Glacial Maximum. Variations in the monsoonal climate of the study area over the past 700 years have been reconstructed from the δ18O and δ13C records of a 14.6-cm long stalagmite F4 in Fengyu cave, showing wet conditions between AD 1550 and AD 1850 (the Little Ice Age) and relatively dry conditions before and after this interval. Human impacts on local vegetation since AD 1700 were recorded by the δ13C record of stalagmite F4.

The climate factor has become a focus of much historical and archaeological investigation, encouraged recently by improvements in palaeoclimatic techniques and interest in global climate change. This article examines correlations between climate and history in the Byzantine southern Levant (c. 4th–7th centuries AD). A proposed 5th century economic downturn attested to by numismatic trends is shown to coincide with palaeoclimatic evidence for drought. We suggest a climatic ultimate cause for the apparent economic decline. In addition, the relationship between the Dust Veil Index (DVI) and annual precipitation in Jerusalem suggests the likelihood of increased precipitation following the 536 AD volcanic dust veil. This prediction is borne out by high-resolution precipitation reconstructions from Soreq Cave speleothems and by sedimentation records of extreme flash flooding. These finds complement palaeoclimatic reconstructions from Europe showing a drop in precipitation after 536 AD. Drought in Europe and flo...

The isotopic composition of precipitation ( δ P ) is one of the most widely used and informative terrestrial paleoclimate proxies. δ P integrates a series of hydrological processes; therefore, any interpretation of paleohydrology using δ P requires a thorough understanding and quantification of the full hydrological cycle. In this paper, we use modern data to analytically model the full isotopic hydrological cycle of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Southern Levant, including oceanic evaporation, distillation during transport and precipitation over land. This model allows us to determine the important factors controlling this system. The model results underscore the significance of the isotopic distillation process driven by the land–sea temperature gradient as a significant factor controlling the long-term average isotopic composition of precipitation across Israel. Based on the understanding of the processes that govern the modern system, we model the isotopic composition of precipitation from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) using published data for speleothem oxygen isotopes in calcite, oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in fluid inclusions and clumped isotope values from Soreq Cave and the isotopic composition of East Mediterranean planktonic foraminifera G. ruber. The data and model results indicate two plausible scenarios for the LGM that entail changes in the magnitude of distillation over Israel, in normalized humidity over the Mediterranean and possible shifts of the moisture trajectories over the Mediterranean. The results presented in the paper illustrate the importance of understanding the full local hydrological cycle when reconstructing and interpreting the isotopic composition of precipitation.

Tree-ring carbon isotope discrimination (Δ13C) and oxygen isotopes (δ18O) collected from white pine (Pinus strobus) trees adjacent to Lake Superior show potential to produce the first winter-specific paleoclimate reconstruction with inter-annual resolution for this region. Isotopic signatures from 1976 to 2015 were strongly linked to antecedent winter minimum temperatures (Tmin), Lake Superior peak ice cover, and regional to continental-scale atmospheric winter pressure variability including the North American Dipole. The immense thermal inertia of Lake Superior underlies the unique connection between winter conditions and tree-ring Δ13C and δ18O signals from the following growing season in trees located near the lake. By combining these signals, we demonstrate feasibility to reconstruct variability in Tmin, ice cover, and continental-scale atmospheric circulation patterns (r ≥ 0.65, P

A salvage excavation at the Lower Paleolithic site of Kefar Menahem West in the interior of the Israeli coastal plain yielded a flake industry devoid of handaxes and their byproducts. The archeological finds covering an area exceeding 2000 m2, are found at the contact of two distinct sedimentological units: Quartzic Brown and hamra (red clay loam paleosols). The absence of handaxes hamper placing the site within the relative chronology of the Lower Paleolithic record of the Levant. New paleomagnetic analysis coupled with optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and thermally transferred optically (TT-OSL) dating yielded a chronological range between 780 and 460 ka for the archeological occupation. The techno-typological similarities with Late Acheulian assemblages together with possible variations in the mode of occupations by early hominids at the site, both suggest that the KMW should be conceived as part of the Late Acheulian variability.

An archaeological site is an integral part of its surrounding landscape. This is one of the main novel approaches in the long-term archaeological project of Tell eṣ-Ṣâfi/Gath. The site has interact...

Given the steep present-day climatic gradients in southern South Africa, comparative studies of its coastal and inland paleoclimate provide important insight into the region's spatial climate dynamics. We present a comparative study of new speleothem stable oxygen (δ18O) and carbon (δ13C) isotopic composition from Efflux Cave (EC; 113–19 ka, hiatus between 105 and 94 ka) in the Little Karoo inland basin and Herolds Bay Cave (HBC; 93–62 ka) at the boundary between the Cape coastal lowlands and the Palaeo-Agulhas Plain. Gaussian kernel based cross-correlation analyses against palaeoclimate proxy records show that rainfall seasonality at EC is related to rainfall amount in the South African interior, whereas HBC is similar to the South African east coast. Our new proxy records, corroborated by archaeological evidence from the Cape coastal lowlands and the Little Karoo, suggest that in both regions, surface water was readily available and grassland ecosystems with variable amounts of C4 and C3 grasses as well as fynbos communities could be found nearby. Cross-correlation analyses of the new records from EC and HBC compared to previously published speleothem records from southern South Africa show only limited statistical correlation. However, there are some similarities in overall trends of palaeoclimate change in the Cape coastal lowlands and the Little Karoo whereby Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5b (mainly Greenland Interstadial 22) and 4 generally have more summer rainfall and higher abundances of C4 vegetation than MIS 5a and MIS 3.

Our original claim, based on three independent numerical dating methods, of an age of ~185,000 years for the Misliya-1 modern human hemi-maxilla from Mount Carmel, Israel, is little affected by discounting uranium-series dating of adhering crusts. It confirms a much earlier out-of-Africa Homo sapiens expansion than previously suggested by the considerably younger (90,000 to 120,000 years) Skhul/Qafzeh hominins.

Earliest modern humans out of AfricaRecent paleoanthropological studies have suggested that modern humans migrated from Africa as early as the beginning of the Late Pleistocene, 120,000 years ago. Hershkovitzet al.now suggest that early modern humans were already present outside of Africa more than 55,000 years earlier (see the Perspective by Stringer and Galway-Witham). During excavations of sediments at Mount Carmel, Israel, they found a fossil of a mouth part, a left hemimaxilla, with almost complete dentition.The sediments contain a series of well-defined hearths and a rich stone-based industry, as well as abundant animal remains. Analysis of the human remains, and dating of the site and the fossil itself, indicate a likely age of at least 177,000 years for the fossil—making it the oldest member of theHomo sapiensclade found outside Africa.Science, this issue p.456; see also p.389

Manot Cave radiocarbon dates establish Levantine chronology, which is critical for understanding Upper Paleolithic dispersals., The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of modern humans with Upper Paleolithic traditions. We report a high-resolution radiocarbon chronology for Early Upper Paleolithic industries (Early Ahmarian and Levantine Aurignacian) from the newly excavated site of Manot Cave, Israel. The dates confirm that the Early Ahmarian industry was present by 46,000 calibrated years before the present (cal BP), and the Levantine Aurignacian occurred at least between 38,000 and 34,000 cal BP. This timing is consistent with proposed migrations or technological diffusions between the Near East and Europe. Specifically, the Ahmarian could have led to the development of the Protoaurignacian in Europe, and the Aurignacian in Europe could have spread back to the Near East as the Levantine Aurignacian.

We take up the question of “why” cultivation was adopted by the end of the Younger Dryas by reviewing evidence in the Levant, a sub-region of southwestern Asia, from the Late Glacial Maximum through the first millennium of the Holocene. Based on the evidence, we argue that the demographic increase of foraging societies in the Levant at the Terminal Pleistocene formed the backdrop for the collapse of foraging adaptations, compelling several groups within a particular “core area” of the Fertile Crescent to become fully sedentary and introduce cultivation alongside intensified gathering in the Late Glacial Maximum, ca. 12,000–11,700 cal BP. In addition to traditional hunting and gathering, the adoption of stable food sources became the norm. The systematic cultivation of wild cereals begun in the northern Levant resulted in the emergence of complex societies across the entire Fertile Crescent within several millennia. Results of archaeobotanical and archaeozoological investigations provide a basis for reconstructing economic strategies, spatial organization of sites, labor division, and demographic shifts over the first millennium of the Holocene. We draw our conclusion from two kinds of data from the Levant, a sub-region of southwestern Asia, during the Terminal Pleistocene and early Holocene: climatic fluctuations and the variable human reactions to natural and social calamities. The evidence in the Levant for the Younger Dryas, a widely recognized cold period across the northern hemisphere, is recorded in speleothems and other climatic proxies, such as Dead Sea levels and marine pollen records.

Terrestrial chemical weathering of silicate minerals is a fundamental component of the global cycle of carbon and other elements. Past changes in temperature, rainfall, ice cover, sea-level and physical erosion are thought to affect weathering but the relative impact of these controls through time remains poorly constrained. This problem could be addressed if the nature of past weathering could be constrained at individual sites. In this study, we investigate the use of speleothems as local recorders of the silicate weathering proxy, Li isotopes. We analysed δ7Li and [Li] in speleothems that formed during the past 200 ka in two well-studied Israeli caves (Soreq and Tzavoa), as well as in the overlying soils and rocks. Leaching and mass balance of these soils and rocks show that Li is dominantly sourced from weathering of the overlying aeolian silicate soils. Speleothem δ7Li values are ubiquitously higher during glacials (~23‰) than during interglacials (~10‰), implying more congruent silicate weathering during interglacials (where “congruent” means a high ratio of primary mineral dissolution to secondary mineral formation). These records provide information on the processes controlling weathering in Israel. Consideration of possible processes causing this change of weathering congruency indicates a primary role for temperature, with higher temperatures causing more congruent weathering (lower δ7Lispeleo). The strong relationship observed between speleothem d7Li and climate at these locations suggests that Li isotopes may be a powerful tool with which to understand the local controls on weathering at other sites, and could be used to assess the distribution of weathering changes accompanying climate change, such as that of Pleistocene glacial cycles.

There is growing evidence that speleothem calcite grows out of isotopic equilibrium with cave drip water, with clumped isotope analysis providing a sensitive indicator for disequilibrium. This disequilibrium is primarily the result of CO2 degassing from a thin film of water, leading to irreversible 13C enrichment and reversible 18O enrichment and Δ47 depletion. Here we examine isotopic disequilibrium in Soreq Cave (Israel) using multiple modern-day and late Holocene speleothems. The variability observed in Δ47 is small, within the analytical uncertainty, but the Δ47-derived temperature is offset from the modern cave temperature by ∼4 °C, reflecting degassing related disequilibrium that is fairly constant spatially. δ18O is more heterogeneous, reflecting short-term variability in drip water δ18Ow combined with variability in the speleothem growth rates and related fractionation between dissolved carbonate species and the growing calcite mineral. This complexity, however, is markedly reduced by spatial or temporal averaging, enabling an interpretation of the cave paleoclimate record. We examine the Soreq Cave speleothems through a comparison with 2 types of thermometers: one is based on CaCO3 precipitation from a bulk solution and is typically used for calibration of the Δ47 and δ18O thermometers; a second that is based on CaCO3 precipitating at the surface of the solution thus focusing and amplifying the thin film characteristics of speleothem formation. Soreq Cave speleothems are intermediate between these thermometers, providing a cave-specific thermometer calibration.

The “younger fill” phenomenon defined by Vita-Finzi, related to sediments that were deposited in many Mediterranean valleys, has been a topic of discussion for several decades. The main challenge regarding this issue is deciphering the origin of the fill: geomorphic processes induced by natural climatic, or by anthropogenic activity. The current research is an attempt to deal with this issue by using a concept in which the environmental records, i.e. climate, hydrology and sedimentology, were examined in conjunction with human history, in the area of the Bronze and Iron Age archaeological site of Tell es-Safi/Gath, in central Israel. The study investigated geomorphic structures of various scales: a single slope, 1st and 2nd order valleys, and larger drainage basins of a few tens to hundreds km 2 . High-resolution dating of the sediments by OSL and 14 C allowed the identification of different sedimentary phases. The sedimentary history of the Tell es-Safi/Gath environs shows that: (a) During the Chalcolithic period and Early Bronze Age (∼4200–3050 BCE), stable conditions prevailed in the small valleys, represented by soil formation; (b) During the Iron Age II and up to the Early Arab period (∼800 BCE–800CE), aggradation took place in the small and the large valleys; (c) During the post-Byzantine/Early Arab periods (after 800 CE), major incision occurred in the large valleys, whereas minor aggradation occurred in the small valleys. Climatic and natural geomorphic processes are the major factors shaping the landscape in the current research area. Anthropogenic activity was expressed at localized sites and for a limited time, in two locations only. One location is the siege trench that surrounds Tell es-Safi/Gath, where sedimentation occurred shortly after the destruction of the site by Hazael, king of Aram Damascus (ca. late 9th century BCE), and in the same locality during the Byzantine period. The other location is the 2nd order valley close to the archaeological site, where enhanced sedimentation rates occurred shortly after site destruction. In addition, these results suggest that the small basin valleys underwent aggradation that continuously recorded the local environmental history, whereas the large drainage basins underwent cut and fill processes related to the regional environmental history in a less continuous record.

article High-resolution isotopic and geochemical analyses in a modern (1990-2008) Soreq Cave stalagmite are com- pared to instrumental records of rainfall and dripwater from the cave, with the aim of determining how seasonal-resolutionclimateinformationistransmittedtospeleothemgeochemistry.Insitu,micron-scaleanalysis of oxygen isotope ratios (δ 18 O) and trace elements by ion microprobe in combination with a continuous, linear traverse of trace element concentrations by laser-ablation ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS) allow the definition of geochem- ical pathways within the cave. Fluorescent banding, imaged by confocal laser fluorescent microscopy (CLFM), as well as δ

An article in the special issue "Quantification of human–environment interactions in the past" comprising 8 articles (plus the introduction). This special issue is a contribution to PAGES' Focus 4 (human–climate–ecosystem interactions) theme and specifically the Land Use and Cover Soil and Sediment and Water Themes which ran up until 2014. The volume emerged from the PAGES supported meeting: ‘Towards a more accurate quantification of human–environment interactions in the past’ held in Leuven Belgium from 3–7 February 2014. ABSTRACT: Mediterranean landscapes have been characterized by the ongoing interaction between natural processes and anthropogenic activities over several thousands of years. However separating the relative contributions of these two factors in shaping the landscape has proved to be difficult. With reference to three excavated probes located in the environs of the archaeological site of Tell es Safi/Gath (central Israel) we outline a methodological approach that may aid in distinguishing between the impact of natural and anthropogenic agencies on the accumulation of sediment fills. We conclude that at Tell es Safi/Gath natural geomorphic processes were the major factors that shaped the landscape but anthropogenic activity is expressed in a brief period of time as evidenced by a high sedimentation rate combined with high d13C values a relatively high quantity of phytoliths and a high concentration of charred particles. This anthropogenic signature is interpreted as resulting from the destruction of the site by Hazael King of Aram Damascus (ca. late 9th century BCE). This research demonstrates how high resolution multi disciplinary sampling of probes for dating C isotopic composition phytolith characterization pollen analysis and assessment of sedimentation rates in combination with the study of human cultural history at an archaeological site may facilitate the distinction between natural and anthropogenic causes of sedimentation.

The Eastern Mediterranean (EM) - Levant region is the eastern borderland of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (EMS). The EMS brings Mediterranean climate zones to the immediate coastal region and hinterland, but away from the influence of the EMS, the region rapidly becomes a desert. Paleoclimate evidence derived from a large number of studies on speleothems from caves located along sharp climatic gradients enables deep insight into the climate in the EM-Levant region. Growth periods and isotopic composition of speleothems from the various climate regimes capture the regional signals of temperature, rainfall amount and vegetation. Speleothems from northern and central Israel grew continuously in areas where present-day annual rainfall is ∼400–500 mm and show that water was always available during glacials and interglacials. These speleothems display a well-defined δ18O orbital modulation of glacial and interglacial marine isotope stages (MIS) and show good correlations with the EMS marine records, pointing to strong direct sea-land links. The climatic record indicates relatively drier and cooler glacials but extreme wet peaks during interglacials, mainly MIS 5e between 128–120 ka BP. Pluvial conditions penetrated to the northern, central and southern Negev Desert. The present-day climatic gradient between the different climatic regions existed through interglacials. However, growth periods of speleothems from the northern Negev Desert, from the “rain shadow’ desert, and the Dead Sea Basin, suggest that during last glacial the desert boundary moved from its interglacial and present-day position ∼30 km farther south and ∼60 km farther east, due to positive water balance.

Wood ash, composed mainly of the mineral calcite, is an important component in many archaeological sites. Identification of wood ash in the archaeological record is often difficult due to mixing of ash with other calcitic components of geogenic origin and/or due to diagenetic changes. A recent empirical study using the stable isotope compositions of carbon (δ 13 C) and oxygen (δ 18 O) in wood ash enabled the identification of mixtures of wood ash with geogenic calcite and to follow diagenetic changes due to partial dissolution and re-precipitation of ash in two prehistoric cave sites in Israel. Little however is known about the processes responsible for the isotopic compositions of wood ash in relation to formation at various temperatures and the influence on isotopic composition of ash from a variety of plant species. Here we present an experimental study of wood ash formed by burning three C3 tree species and one C4 desert bush at different temperatures. The results indicate that there are significant differences in the isotopic compositions of carbon and oxygen between wood ash that forms by combustion at a relatively low temperature (500 °C) and at a higher temperature (900 °C). In addition, we show that the isotopic composition of carbon and oxygen in high temperature wood ash approaches equilibrium over a period of several months and that the carbon isotopic composition of low temperature wood ash may reflect the photosynthetic pathway of the burnt woody species. Lastly, we show that the isotopic compositions obtained from wood ash prepared at different temperatures do not reflect a temperature dependent fractionation process, but a mixing line between calcite that formed by low temperature combustion and calcite formed by high temperature combustion which later underwent re-carbonation with atmospheric CO 2 . In addition, we suggest that exchange processes may possibly occur during combustion between decomposing calcium-oxalate and atmospheric O 2 , CO 2 and CO. The archaeological implications of this study are discussed in relation to identification of wood ash in the archaeological record, identification of fuel sources and burning temperatures, and diagenetic changes expected in karstic cave environments. The method presented here can be applied at any archaeological site.

This study focuses on warm Last Glacial episodes in the southernmost extension of the Alpine karst range of the Eastern Mediterranean (Levant) region through the study speleothems in Mizpe Shelagim Cave, located in Mt. Hermon. The Alpine karst range extends from Turkey through Syria and Lebanon, reaching its southern limit in Mt. Hermon at an elevation of more than 2000 m. Under present-day conditions, southern Mt. Hermon receives 1000–2000 mm precipitation, mostly as snow, that originates in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Speleothems deposition in this high altitude region was continuous during interglacials, but during the Last Glacial growth only occurred when average annual temperatures exceeded ∼3 °C as inferred from the study of speleothem fluid inclusions. Warming episodes occurred at: ∼65 ka, ∼56 ka, 54.5 ka, ∼52.5–51 ka, ∼49 ka, ∼42 ka, and ∼36 ka and are coincident with maximum insolation at 65 °N. The main depositional period from ∼56 ka to 51 ka coincides with Dansgaard–Oeschger interstadial 15 and 14, and warming in the northeastern basin of the Mediterranean Sea. Warming in the southern Alpine karst range of the Eastern Mediterranean was manifested by vegetation development, together with significant snow melting that resulted in the drainage of large amount of water to the Dead Sea Rift Valley.

Africa” exodus of early modern humans: evidence from desert stalactites A.VAKS , M. BAR-MATTHEWS, A. AYALON, A. MATTHEWS, L. HALICZ, AND A. FRUMKIN 1 Institute of Earth Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904; Israel; antonv@pob.huji.ac.il; alan@vms.huji.ac.il 2 Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Israel St., Jerusalem 95501; Israel matthews@gsi.gov.il; ayalon@gsi.gov.il 3 Department of Physical Geography, Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91905; Israel; msamos@mscc.huji.ac.il

The Middle-Late Pliocene climate was 2-3°C warmer than today, but with similar levels of atmospheric CO2. This period reflects climate conditions expected in the near future, and is therefore an important target for current data-modeling studies. This study reconstructs the Pliocene-Quaternary evolution of arid conditions on the northern margin of the Saharan-Arabian desert, using radiometrically (U-Pb) dated periods of speleothem deposition from three caves of the Negev Desert, Israel. Speleothem growth started between ~3.75 and ~3Ma, at the end of the first significant tectonic uplift of the western shoulder of the Dead Sea Rift. Major speleothem deposition, indicating wet conditions, occurred during the Pliocene around ~3.1Ma, with subsequent aridity during the last 3Myr, punctuated by short wet episodes - the Pleistocene Negev Humid Periods (NHP). The oldest dated NHP occurred between ~1.7 and ~1.25Ma, and other short humid episodes continued intermittently later. Speleothem δ18O values (-6.9‰ to -11.2‰) show that the humid episodes were associated with periods of low global ice volume and warm temperatures. After correction for rainfall δ18O changes associated with ice volume and temperature effects, the observed relative constancy of speleothem δ18O values from Pliocene to Late Pleistocene indicates rainfall was from a common source, most probably the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The humid Pliocene conditions could be generated by more southerly position of the Mediterranean coast (allowing the access of Mediterranean precipitation to the Negev), as well as by warmer Atlantic Sea Surface Temperatures, that weakened the Azores High Pressure Cell. Maximum amounts of precipitation were 500-600mm/a during the Pliocene and >300mm/a during Pleistocene NHP. The Pliocene and the earliest Pleistocene NHP are associated with formation of lakes in the Negev. Low 87Sr/86Sr ratios of ~0.7078 in the Pliocene speleothems are indicative of low dust supply, low water residence time in the vadose zone and relatively high weathering rates of the cave host rock. Increase of 87Sr/86Sr ratios to 0.7082-0.7083 in the Pleistocene suggest an increased supply of desert dust, high water residence time in the vadose zone and reduced host rock weathering. © 2013 Elsevier B.V.

Current global warming necessitates a detailed understanding of the relationships between climate and global ice volume. Highly resolved and continuous sea-level records are essential for quantifying ice-volume changes. However, an unbiased study of the timing of past ice-volume changes, relative to polar climate change, has so far been impossible because available sea-level records either were dated by using orbital tuning or ice-core timescales, or were discontinuous in time. Here we present an independent dating of a continuous, high-resolution sea-level record in millennial-scale detail throughout the past 150,000 years. We find that the timing of ice-volume fluctuations agrees well with that of variations in Antarctic climate and especially Greenland climate. Amplitudes of ice-volume fluctuations more closely match Antarctic (rather than Greenland) climate changes. Polar climate and ice-volume changes, and their rates of change, are found to covary within centennial response times. Finally, rates of sea-level rise reached at least 1.2 m per century during all major episodes of ice-volume reduction.

The combination of ion microprobe analysis of d 18 O and confocal laser fluorescent microscope imaging of annual growth bands in a Soreq Cave speleothem provides sub-annual-scale climate information between 34 and 4 ka. This high-resolution methodology is ideal both for comparing seasonal climate patterns across broad windows of time and examining rapid climate events, such as the Younger Dryas termination, in detail. The sub-annual d 18 O gradients we report represent a combination of seasonal variability in rainfall amount and air temperature. A distinct change in both the pattern of fluorescent banding and the gradient of d 18 O measured in situ across single, annual growth bands indicates a change in seasonal climate patterns of the Eastern Mediterranean region following Heinrich event 1 and again after the Younger Dryas. Throughout the Holocene, wet winters and dry summers characterized regional climate. During the Younger Dryas, we find that regional climate may have been more arid than in the Holocene, but the fluorescent banding pattern indicates that the supply of dripwater to the cave was more consistent year-round. We suggest that a reduced gradient of seasonal precipitation, occasional snowfall, and vegetation differences may have all contributed to the isotope and fluorescent banding patterns observed during Heinrich event 1 and the last glacial stadial. Detailed investigation of the Younger Dryas termination reveals a rapid onset of regional environmental change. Fluorescent band counting indicates that the Younger Dryas termination, as recorded by rainfall in the

In their seminal paper in 1979, Bull and Schick proposed a conceptual model for the geomorphic response to Pleistocene to Holocene climate change, based on the hyperarid Nahal Yael watershed in the southern Negev Desert. In this model, the change from semiarid late Pleistocene to hyperarid early Holocene climates reduced vegetation cover, increased the yield of sediment from slopes, and accelerated aggradation of terraces and alluvial fans. The model is now over 30 yr old, and during this time, chronologic, paleoenvironmental, and hydrogeomorphic research has advanced. Here, we reevaluate the model using data acquired in Nahal Yael over the 30yr since the original model was proposed. Recent studies indicate that the late Pleistocene climate was hyperarid, and a transition from semiarid to hyperarid climates did not occur. The revised chronology reveals a major 35–20 ka episode of accelerated late Pleistocene sediment production on slopes (with lower rates probably already at ca. 50ka) due to increased frequency of wetting-drying cycles caused by frequent extreme storms and floods between 35 and 27 ka. Without lag time, these sediments were transported and aggraded in depositional landscape components (fluvial terraces and alluvial fans). This intensified sediment production and delivery phase is unrelated to the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. The depositional landforms were rapidly incised between 20 and 18 ka. Since and/or soon after this Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) incision, most material leaving the basin originated from sediments stored in depositional landforms and was not produced from bedrock. Using these new data, we propose a revision to the Bull and Schick model in this hyperarid environment. Our revision suggests that the model should include the frequent storms and floods responsible for a late Pleistocene pulse of intense weathering due to numerous cycles of wetting and drying on slopes and coeval sediment transport to fluvial terraces and alluvial fans. We also discuss the common use and pitfalls of using the Bull and Schick conceptual model to explain observations in diverse arid environments, usually without sufficient data on basin-specific stratigraphic, chronologic, paleoenvironmental, and paleoclimatic information.

The time at which deserts established their current arid or hyper-arid conditions remains a fundamental question regarding the history of Earth. Cosmogenic isotope exposure ages of desert pavement and welded, calcic–gypsic–salic Reg soils that developed on relatively flat alluvial surfaces ∼2 Ma ago in the Negev Desert indicate long geomorphic stability under extremely dry conditions. Over a short interval during their initial stage of development between 1–2 Ma, these cumulative soils are characterized by calcic soils reaching maximum stage III of carbonate morphology. This interval is the only period when calcic soil horizons formed on stable abandoned alluvial surfaces in the southern Negev Desert. Since ∼1 Ma pedogenesis changed toward more arid soil environment and the formation of gypsic–salic soil horizons that were later followed by dust accumulation. The dichotomy of only moderately-developed calcic soil (stages II–III) during a relatively long time interval (105–106 years) indicates an arid environment that does not support continuous development but only occasional calcic soil formation. The very low δ18O and relatively high δ13C values of these early pedogenic carbonates support soil formation under arid climatic conditions. Such an environment was probably characterized by rare and relatively longer duration rainstorms which occasionally allowed deeper infiltration of rainwater and longer retention of soil moisture. This, in turn enabled the growth of sparse vegetation that enhanced deposition of pedogenic carbonate. At ∼1 Ma these rare events of slightly wetter conditions ceased and less atmospheric moisture reached the southern Negev Desert leading to deposition of soluble salts and dust deposited in the soils. The combination of long-term hyperaridity, scarcity of vegetation and lack of bioturbation, salts cementation, dust accumulation and tight desert pavement cover, has protected the surfaces from erosion forming one of the most remarkably stable landscapes on Earth, a landscape that essentially has not eroded, but accumulated salt and dust for more than 106 yr.

Israel's recent offshore gas discovery and possible onshore oil discoveries put Israel as an energy independent country. Up to now, the Heletz-Kokhav oil field is the largest oil finding in Israel. The main reservoir units in this oil field contain sandstone and shale layers intercalated with limestone and dolostone of the Lower Cretaceous Heletz Formation, found at an average depth of about 1600 m below surface on the Israeli coastal plain. The chemical composition and isotopic values (δ13C and δ18O) of the carbonate cement minerals along with the paragenetic sequence have been used to identify the changes in the pore-water composition during the diagenesis of the clastic rocks. The diagenetic carbonate phases in the clastic units include early low-Mg calcite (δ18OCalcite of −3.53 and −3.46‰ VPDB; δ13CCalcite of -2.53 and + 1.15‰ VPDB) and siderite (δ18OSiderite of −4.28 and + 1.45‰; δ13CSiderite of −4.22 and −2.65‰). Ankerite, the dominant authigenic phase in the Heletz Formation (average composition of Ca1.09 Mg0.62Fe0.28Mn0.013(CO3)2 with δ18OAnkerite of −4.73 to + 0.52 ‰ and δ13CAnkerite of −11.92 to + 0.04‰), and low-Mg poikilotopic calcite (δ18OCalcite of −8.77 to −2.84‰; δ13CCalcite of −9.45 to −1.60‰) were formed later in the diagenetic history. Fracture-related diagenesis of ankerite, dolomite, and high-Mg calcite (δ18OCalcite of -6.86 to -1.66‰; δ13CCalcite of -12.94 to + 1.74‰) is found in the dolostone rocks of Kokhav Dolomite Member. Petrographic interpretation, the iron content in the ankerite, and the δ13C values indicate that the formation of the ankerite took place during the migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons in the Heletz trap. Based on the δ18O values, we suggest that early in the burial history shallow diagenesis (calcite, siderite) occurred in the presence of fresh water within different levels of oxic to redox microenvironments. As burial proceeded, the δ18O values of the pore-water increased due to water/rock interaction. Ankerite and calcite cement were deposited from this 18O-enriched water at or near maximum burial temperatures (~ 60 °C). Fracture-related diagenesis of vein filling minerals (ankerite, dolomite and calcite) took place very late in the diagenetic history, probably during the Messinian desiccation event of the Mediterranean Sea (Upper Miocene) from the Mavqi'im seawater penetrating into the subsurface of the coastal plain of Israel. The reconstructed burial and diagenetic history attest to a large-scale pore-water movement in this sedimentary basin, even down to several thousand meters below surface.

We present here the results of a U–Th dating project at Qesem Cave, a Middle Pleistocene, late Lower Paleolithic site in Israel. It provides 54 new MC-ICP-MS U–Th ages for speleothems from the cave. The results indicate that human occupation started sometime between ∼420 and 320 ka and ended between 220 and 194 ka. A survey of dates from culturally similar sites in the Levant indicates that the general range of ca. 400–ca. 200 ka is an appropriate estimate for the life span of the Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC).

Soils in similar geomorphic settings in hyperarid deserts (< 50 mm yr−1) should have similar characteristics because a negative moisture balance controls their development. However, Reg soils in the hyperarid southern Negev and Namib deserts are distinctly different. Soils developed on stable alluvial surfaces with only direct input of rainfall and dust depend heavily on rainfall characteristics. Annual rainfall amount can be similar (15–30 mm), but storm duration can drastically alter Reg soil properties in deserts. The cooler fall/winter and dry hot summers of the southern Negev Desert with a predominance brief (≤ 1 day) rainstorms result in gypsic-saline soils without any calcic soil horizon. Although the Namib Desert receives only 50–60% of the southern Negev annual rainfall, its rainstorm duration is commonly 2–4 days. This improves leaching of the top soil under even lower annual rainfall amount and results in weeks-long grass cover. The long-term cumulative effect of these rare rain-grass relationships produces a calcic-gypsic-saline soil. The development of these different kinds of desert soils highlights the importance of daily to seasonal rainfall characteristics in influencing soil-moisture regime in deserts, and has important implications for the use of key desert soil properties as proxies in paleoclimatology.

Speleothems in arid and hyper-arid areas of Negev Desert, Israel, are used in paleoclimate reconstruction of northern margins of Saharan-Arabian Desert, focused on the following objectives: 1) precise U–Th dating of the timing of speleothem growth as an indicator of periods of humid climate, i.e. positive effective precipitation; 2) the origin of rainfall using the speleothem δ18O and changes in spatial pattern of speleothem deposition and speleothem thickness along a north–south transect; 3) changes of vegetation cover based on speleothem δ13C variations. During the last 350 ka major humid periods, referred to herein as Negev Humid Periods (NHP), occurred in the central and southern Negev Desert at 350–310 ka (NHP-4), 310–290 ka (NHP-3), 220–190 ka (NHP-2), and 142–109 ka (NHP-1). NHP-4, NHP-2 and NHP-1 are interglacial events, whereas NHP-3 is associated with a glacial period. During NHP-1, 2 and 3 the thickness and volume of the speleothems decrease from the north to the south, and in the most southern part of the region only a very thin flowstone layer formed during NHP-1, with no speleothem deposition occurring during NHP-2 and 3. These data imply that the Eastern Mediterranean Sea was the major source of the rainfall in northern and central Negev. More negative speleothem δ18O values, relative to central parts of Israel (Soreq Cave) are attributed to Rayleigh distillation because of the increasing distance from the Mediterranean Sea. Speleothem deposition during the NHP-4 in the southern Negev was more intensive than in most of the central Negev, suggesting the prominence of the tropical rain source. Decrease in speleothem δ13C during NHP events indicates growth of the vegetation cover. Nevertheless, the ranges of δ13C values show that the vegetation remained semi-desert C4 type throughout the NHPs, with an additional significant carbon fraction coming from the host rock and the atmosphere. These observations, together with small thickness of the speleothem layers, favor that NHP events consisted of clusters of very short humid episodes interspersed with long droughts. NHP events were contemporaneous with climate periods with monsoon index of ≥51 (cal/cm2 × day) and with the formation of sapropel layers in the Mediterranean Sea. Such simultaneous intensification of the monsoon and Atlantic-Mediterranean cyclones is probably related to the weakening of the high pressure cell above sub-tropical Atlantic Ocean, which enabled more rainfall to penetrate into the Saharan-Arabian Desert from the north and south. The contemporaneous occurrence of the NHP events and the increased monsoon rainfall could have opened migration corridors, creating climatic “windows of opportunity” for dispersals of hominids and animals out of the African continent.