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Conversion therapy is an attempt to change the sexual orientation or gender identity of an LGBTQ+ individual to conform to heteronormative, cisgender archetypes using practices such as aversion therapy and talk therapy. It denies the true identity of a person, and to allow its practice on minors constitutes child abuse. In fact, conversion therapy qualifies as torture in many international spaces. Multiple studies indicate that children who undergo these "treatments" are at higher risks of suicide, attempted suicide, depression, self-injury, substance abuse, and have difficulty forming interpersonal relationships as adults. Not only does the data show that conversion therapy is harmful, but it also shows that conversion therapy does not work. Nonetheless, proponents of conversion therapy claim that the right to its practice is protected under the First Amendment rights to free speech and free exercise of religion. The practice of conversion therapy continues even though it goes against medical evidence of the dangers of conversion therapy in both the long and short term, and against federal and state statutes prohibiting emotional and physical abuse of a child. This Article addresses the relationship between LGBTQ+ individuals and the Abrahamic religions, the history of conversion therapy and its practices, and the legal framework for finding conversion therapy an act of child abuse to argue that the practice of conversion therapy in the United States should therefore garner no Constitutional protections. Not only should courts uphold bans on conversion therapy, federal and state legislatures should enact laws that expressly prevent its use on minors in any circumstance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When we imagine a picture, we move our eyes even though the picture is physically not present. These eye movements provide information about the ongoing process of mental imagery. Eye movements unfold over time, and previous research has shown that the temporal gaze dynamics of eye movements in mental imagery have unique properties, which are unrelated to those in perception. In mental imagery, refixations of previously fixated locations happen more often and in a more systematic manner than in perception. The origin of these unique properties remains unclear. We tested how the temporal structure of eye movements is influenced by the complexity of the mental image. Participants briefly saw and then maintained a pattern stimulus, consisting of one (easy condition) to four black segments (most difficult condition). When maintaining a simple pattern in imagery, participants restricted their gaze to a narrow area, and for more complex stimuli, eye movements were more spread out to distant areas. At the same time, fewer refixations were made in imagery when the stimuli were complex. The results show that refixations depend on the imagined content. While fixations of stimulus-related areas reflect the so-called 'looking at nothing' effect, gaze restriction emphasizes differences between mental imagery and perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies with cannabidiol (CBD) suggest that this compound has anxiolytic properties and may mediate the reconsolidation and extinction of aversive memories. The objective of this study was to test whether the administration of CBD 300 mg before the recall of traumatic events attenuated symptoms usually induced by recall in subjects diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and if its potential effects interfere with the reconsolidation of aversive memories. The double-blind trial included 33 participants of both sexes, aged between 18 and 60 years, diagnosed with PTSD according to the SCID-5 and randomly allocated to two groups treated with CBD (n = 17) and placebo (n = 16). In the first experimental section, participants were matched by sex, age, body mass index (BMI), and PTSD symptoms as assessed with the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL-5). On the same day, participants prepared the behavior test, recording accounts of their traumas in digital audio for a minute and a half and then imagining the trauma for 30 s. After 7 days, participants received CBD (300 mg) or placebo and performed the behavioral test, listening to the trauma account and imagining themselves in that situation. Before and after the behavioral test, subjective changes in mood and anxiety were recorded (Visual and Analogical Mood Scale — VAMS and STAI-state), along with physiological correlates of anxiety blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), and salivary cortisol (SC). Seven days later, participants underwent the same procedures as the previous session, but without the pharmacological intervention, to assess the effect on reconsolidation of traumatic memories. We found that CBD significantly attenuated the increase in the VAMS scale cognitive impairment factor scores, under the CBD's effect, with this effect remaining 1 week after drug administration. No significant differences between the effects of CBD and placebo on anxiety, alertness, and discomfort induced by the recall of the traumatic event during the pharmacological intervention and in the subsequent week, in the absence of it. There were no significant differences between the CBD and placebo groups regarding physiological data (BP, HR, and SC). The attenuation of cognitive impairments during trauma recall under the effect of CBD may have interfered with the reconsolidation of traumatic memories concerning its association with cognitive impairments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Anthony Burgess’ novel ‘Clockwork Orange’ identifies the topical debates surrounding the use of aversion therapy (or aversive conditioning) as an effective treatment for addictive behaviours. Widely popularised in literature as ‘Ludovico’s Technique’, Burgess attempts to credit the misunderstanding and dramatization of its effects when the main protagonist is released from a prison sentence after undergoing this treatment. Objectives We aimed to highlight the depictions of aversion therapy in modern popular literature. Methods A narrative review of the current literature concerning aversion therapy and Anthony Burgess’s novel ‘A Clockwork Orange’ was conducted. Emphasis on the misinterpretation of aversive therapies was noted. Results Since the introduction of pharmacological alternatives and additional forms of psychological therapies, there has been a decline in the use of aversion therapy in recent decades. However, it is still effective when conceding the conditioning process. Likewise, its predecessor’ visual imagery’ is believed to be a more acceptable and effective form. Conclusions The depiction of aversion therapy in literature and media has played a role in shaping societal views on aversive conditioning techniques and the degree to which they are deemed acceptable forms of treatment. The “Ludovico Technique” featured in the novel ‘A Clockwork Orange’ and its film adaptation is arguably the most salient depiction of aversion therapy in popular culture. Disclosure No significant relationships.

Background: Tobacco addiction affects both the mind and the body. Most people find that a mix of medicine, a strategy to change personal habits, and emotional support is the most effective way to quit. The aim of the work was to compare between the effectiveness of cupping therapy and aversion therapy as adjuvant methods in smoking cessation program. Patients and methods: A prospective randomized study was done on 60 smokers recruited from Ain Shams University Hospitals who were divided into three groups. Group I : included 20 participants subjected to counseling only (the five A'S); Group II : included 20 participants subjected to counseling and aversion therapy using onion-powdered cigarettes by mixing tobacco with dried onion powder by an equal amount; Group III: included 20 participants subjected to counseling and a monthly bloodletting cupping session for 3 consecutive months, follow up visits were conducted every 2 weeks for 3 months to assess outcome and withdrawal symptoms. Results: There was no statistically significant difference (p value >0.05) between the success rate in the three different groups. The success rate of quitting was the same among smokers in group I and group III ( complete success 10% and partial success 10%), while the success rate of quitting among smokers in group II was ( complete success 0% and partial success 15%). There were significant statistical correlations (P < 0.05) found between the outcome and the age, occupation, duration and pack/year smoking, while there was insignificant statistical difference (P < 0.05) between the outcome and marital status, comorbidities and previous quitting attempts. There was no significant difference between three groups in the frequency of withdrawal symptoms during follow up visits, while there was significant statistic reduction in frequency of dizziness, headache and fatigue between follow up visits in the three groups, weight gain increased during follow up visits. Conclusion: Using adjuvant methods like aversion and bloodletting cupping therapy in smoking cessation programs doesn't seem to produce significant change in success rate of quitting smoking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Aversive control techniques involve aversive stimuli to generate behavioral change. The purpose of this work is to analyze the use of verbal aversive control by psychologists during the clinical interaction, combining respondent and operant explanations. Method: Observational methodology is used to analyze 26 session recordings of three different cases of anxiety disorder, relationship problem and low mood problem (27h 32') carried out by two psychologists of the Therapeutic Institute of Madrid. The variables considered were psychologists' aversive and non-aversive verbalizations and clients' antitherapeutic verbalizations. Results: There is a strong relationship between clients' antitherapeutic verbalizations and psychologist's aversive verbalizations, both potential punishments (aversive verbalizations contingent on the client's response) and aversive pairings. Additionally, the possible psychologists' aversive verbalizations are accompanied by other verbalizations aimed to induce clients' non-problematic behaviors. Conclusions: This work opens a new way to an explanation of therapeutic change using learning processes (both respondent and operant conditioning) that take place through verbal interaction in clinical context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monosulfiram is a drug used topically in the treatment of scabies. Upon its application it shows similar effects as seen in case of disulfiram, a drug used in alcohol aversion therapy. Previous reports have concluded a light induced conversion of monosulfiram (MS) into disulfiram (DS). In the present study a computational approach has been involved to investigate the mechanism of this conversion. Structures have been optimized using MP2 and DFT approach. Insights on their reactivities have been assessed through conceptual DFT. Time-dependent DFT investigation has been undertaken to obtain excitation energies for singlet and triplet states. Bond dissociation energies of both molecules have also been obtained and analyzed. It has been found that conversion of MS into DS occurs in both thermal and photochemical situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescence has been characterized as a developmental period of heightened reward seeking and attenuated aversive processing. However, it remains unclear how the neural bases of distinct outcome valuation processes shift during this stage of the lifespan. A total of 74 participants ranging in age from 13 to 20 years completed a value-modulated functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) task in which participants earn low and high magnitude monetary outcomes to test whether gain and loss magnitude tracking—the neural representation of relative value in context—change differentially over this age span. Results revealed that gain and loss magnitude tracking follow asymmetric developmental trajectories. Gain magnitude tracking is elevated in the striatum during early adolescence and then decreases with age. By contrast, loss magnitude tracking in the anterior insula follows a quadratic pattern, undergoing a temporary attenuation during mid–late adolescence. A typical comparison of gain vs loss outcomes (collapsing over magnitude effects) showed robust activity across a suite of brain regions sensitive to value based on prior work including the ventral striatum, but they exhibited no changes with age. These findings suggest that value coding subprocesses follow divergent developmental paths across adolescence, which may contribute to normative shifts in adolescent motivated behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predators often cause prey to adopt defensive strategies that reduce predation risk. The ‘ecology of fear’ examines these trait changes and their consequences. Similarly, parasites can cause hosts to adopt defensive strategies that reduce infection risk. However the ecological and evolutionary consequences of these behaviors (the ‘ecology of disgust’) are seldom considered. Here we identify direct and indirect effects of parasite avoidance on hosts and parasites, and examine differences between predators and parasites in terms of cost, detectability, and aggregation. We suggest that the nonconsumptive effects of parasites might overshadow their consumptive effects, as has been shown for predators. We emphasize the value of uniting predator–prey and parasite–host theory under a general consumer–resource framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The aim of this study is to evaluate the differences in child behavioral management techniques between male and female pediatric dentists in India. Materials and Methods: The study included 80 pediatric dentists practicing in India. All 80 participants (40 male and 40 female) received a questionnaire which sought information regarding age, sex, aversive, and non-aversive management techniques, use of general anesthesia, and feeling toward an uncooperative child in a dental chair. Results: Regarding the practice of non-aversive techniques, a majority of the dentists both male and female used tell-showdo and gave gifts at the end of each dental appointment. Hypnosis was the least used non-aversive behavioral management technique. Papoose board management technique was commonly used among male dentists than among female dentists. Most dentists reported of not having parents inside the dental office during the treatment, and if there was restraint, the assistant's help was taken. The hand-over-mouth exercise was used by most of the female and male dentists. A considerable number of male dentists reported that they suggest general anesthesia immediately if the child is uncooperative, whereas only a few of female dentists reported, suggesting that general anesthesia commonly of the child is uncooperative. There was no significant difference between the number of male and female dentists who reported to feel more comfortable while practicing aversive management techniques. Only a few dentists tried their best to use a non-aversive technique. More than three-fourths of the dentists reported feeling aggression while the child was uncooperative. Conclusion: There is no statistical difference between male and female dentists in using child management techniques. This study concludes that there is equal potential for both the genders in this field of specialty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The compromise effect dictates that a decision-maker chooses a middle option over an extreme one given a set of choice alternatives since choosing an intermediate option is easier to justify, less likely to be criticized, and is consistent with loss aversion. Our experiment is designed to identify whether the connection between the extremeness of the options and the size of the consideration sets is economically and statistically significant and thus would have important behavioural implications. Specifically, we compare decision-making under small and large consideration sets where the extremeness of the comprising choice options is high, as opposed to low. The results demonstrate that an increase in consideration set size leads to weaker compromise effect (i.e. boundary condition) but when composed of high extremeness, strengthens the compromise effect. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We present a system-level connectionist model of pupil control that includes brain regions believed to influence the size of the pupil. It includes parts of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system together with the hypothalamus, amygdala, locus coeruleus, and cerebellum. Computer simulations show that the model is able to reproduce a number of important aspects of how the pupil reacts to different stimuli: (1) It reproduces the characteristic shape and latency of the light-reflex. (2) It elicits pupil dilation as a response to novel stimuli. (3) It produces pupil dilation when shown emotionally charged stimuli, and can be trained to respond to initially neutral stimuli through classical conditioning. (4) The model can learn to expect light changes for particular stimuli, such as images of the sun, and produces a “light-response” to such stimuli even when there is no change in light intensity. (5) It also reproduces the fear-inhibited light reflex effect where reactions to light increase is weaker after presentation of a conditioned stimulus that predicts punishment. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

People with Down syndrome experience a type of ambivalent stigmatisation, which combines stereotypes, emotional reactions, and both positive and negative attitudes. The aim of this study is to analyse the relationship between ambivalent attitudes towards people with Down syndrome and the levels of intergroup trust and anxiety felt towards them. A total of 144 university students completed a questionnaire on their social perception of people with Down syndrome, indicating the extent to which they anticipate an interaction with this group based on trust or anxiety. The results show that responses to people with Down syndrome are ambivalent. Moreover, while intergroup trust is associated with high levels of admiration and competence, intergroup anxiety is associated with high levels of aversion, compassion and low admiration. We discuss the implications of these results, taking into account how to enhance the social perception of people with Down syndrome, as well as the complex role of compassion in the assessment of stigmatised groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author, who has spent over 60 years working in a variety of mental health settings, shares his personal perspective of the way psychiatry has evolved. Treatments, both physical and psychological, have come and some have been discarded. There have been radical changes in the delivery of care, from the 2000-bed Victorian asylum to community care, and the on the whole beneficial impact of legislation such as mental health Acts and Acts dealing with suicide, abortion and sexual offences. His experience has warned him of the folly of overenthusiasm for some treatments – such as deep insulin for schizophrenia, psycho surgery, and even classical psychoanalysis which can become as addictive as any drug or a promise of salvation as convincing as a religion. On the other hand, a treatment involving passing electric shocks through the brain has stood the test of time and may be life saving for some patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans generally prefer social over nonsocial stimuli from an early age. Reduced preference for social rewards has been observed in individuals with autism spectrum conditions (ASC). This preference has typically been noted in separate tasks that measure orienting toward and engaging with social stimuli. In this experiment, we used two eye-tracking tasks to index both of these aspects of social preference in in 77 typical adults. We used two measures, global effect and preferential looking time. The global effect task measures saccadic deviation toward a social stimulus (related to ‘orienting’), while the preferential looking task records gaze duration bias toward social stimuli (relating to ‘engaging’). Social rewards were found to elicit greater saccadic deviation and greater gaze duration bias, suggesting that they have both greater salience and higher value compared to nonsocial rewards. Trait empathy was positively correlated with the measure of relative value of social rewards, but not with their salience. This study thus elucidates the relationship of empathy with social reward processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to quantify 1647 aversion training sessions involving 1156 dogs conducted between 1998 and 2007 at Coromandel sites (North Island, New Zealand). The effects of gender, age, social group size, function of dog, breed, number of training sessions and responses to training were explored for evidence of learning differences. The behaviour of dogs presented for up to five further training sessions was analysed for change with repeated exposure. The effect of one-, two- or three-year gaps between training sessions was also investigated. All 1156 dogs displayed avoidance to the training stimuli after the first training session. When presented with the training stimuli at the second training session, 69% of the dogs displayed avoidance, 88% did so at their third training session, 86% at the fourth session and 100% at their fifth session. Where avoidance was not displayed at a repeated training session, the dog underwent aversion training again. Lower levels of avoidance to the training stimuli were seen in older dogs being trained for the first time, dogs from single-dog households, dogs used to hunt pigs, non-sporting breed dogs and dogs that have a three-year gap or longer between sessions. While the majority of dogs avoided the kiwi training stimuli, it is recommended that the ecological translation of the training stimuli be investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excessive discounting of future rewards has been related to a variety of risky behaviors and adverse clinical conditions. Prior work examining delay discounting in schizophrenia suggests an elevated discount rate. However, it remains uncertain whether this reflects the disease process itself or an underlying genetic vulnerability, whether it is selective for delay discounting or reflects pervasive changes in decision-making, and whether it is driven by specific clinical dimensions such as cognitive impairment. Here we investigated delay discounting, as well as loss aversion and risk aversion, in three groups: schizophrenia (SZ), unaffected first-degree family members (FM), and controls without a family history of psychosis (NC). SZ had elevated discounting, without changes in loss aversion or risk aversion. Contrary to expectations, the FM group did not show an intermediate phenotype in discounting. Higher discount rates correlated with lower cognitive performance on verbal reasoning, but this did not explain elevated discount rates in SZ. Group differences were driven primarily by the non-smoking majority of the sample. This study provides further evidence for elevated discounting in schizophrenia, and demonstrates that steeper discounting is not necessarily associated with familial risk, cannot be wholly accounted for by cognitive deficits, and is not attributable to smoking-related impulsivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have examined the neural correlates of emotion regulation and the neural changes that are evoked bymusic exposure. However, the link betweenmusic and emotion regulation is poorly understood. The objectives of this review are to (1) synthesize what is known about the neural correlates of emotion regulation and music-evoked emotions, and (2) consider the possibility of therapeutic effects of music on emotion dysregulation. Music-evoked emotions can modulate activities in both cortical and subcortical systems, and across cortical-subcortical networks. Functions within these networks are integral to generation and regulation of emotions. Since dysfunction in these networks are observed in numerous psychiatric disorders, a better understanding of neural correlates of music exposure may lead to more systematic and effective use of music therapy in emotion dysregulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article outlines the emergence of ABA (Applied Behaviour Analysis) in the mid-20th century, and the current popularity of ABA in the anglophone world. I draw on the work of earlier historians to highlight the role of Ole Ivar Lovaas, the most influential practitioner of ABA. I argue that reception of his initial work was mainly positive, despite concerns regarding its efficacy and use of physical aversives. Lovaas’ work, however, was only cautiously accepted by medical practitioners until he published results in 1987. Many accepted the results as validation of Lovaas’ research, though both his methods and broader understanding of autism had shifted considerably since his early work in the 1960s. The article analyses the controversies surrounding ABA since the early 1990s, considering in particular criticisms made by autistic people in the ‘neurodiversity movement’. As with earlier critics, some condemn the use of painful aversives, exemplified in the campaign against the use of shock therapy at the Judge Rotenberg Center. Unlike earlier, non-autistic critics, however, many in this movement reject the ideological goals of ABA, considering autism a harmless neurological difference rather than a pathology. They argue that eliminating benign autistic behaviour through ABA is impermissible, owing to the individual psychological harm and the wider societal impact. Finally, I compare the claims made by the neurodiversity movement with those made by similar 20th- and 21st-century social movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning what to eat and what not to eat is fundamental to our well-being, quality of life, and survival. In particular, the acquisition of conditioned taste aversions (CTAs) protects all animals (including humans) against ingesting foods that contain poisons or toxins. Counterintuitively, CTAs can also develop in situations in which we know with absolute certainty that the food did not cause the subsequent aversive systemic effect. Recent nonhuman animal research, analyzing palatability shifts, has indicated that a wider range of stimuli than has been traditionally acknowledged can induce CTAs. This article integrates these new findings with a reappraisal of some known characteristics of CTA and presents a novel conceptual analysis that is broader and more comprehensive than previous accounts of CTA learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Primary complex motor stereotypies (CMS) are persistent, patterned, repetitive, rhythmic movements in young people with typical development. This study evaluated the efficacy of an instructional DVD as a home-based, parent-administered, behavioral therapy for primary CMS.Method: Eighty-one children with primary CMS were enrolled. Primary outcome measures included the Stereotypy Severity Scale (SSS) - Motor and Impairment scores, and Stereotypy Linear Analog Scale (SLAS). Mean CMS onset was 13.4 months (SD 13.1). Eligibility required observed CMS. Psychiatric disorders were not exclusionary and a stable medication regimen was required. Intellectual disability, neurological disorder, autism spectrum disorder, and tics were exclusionary. Initial assessments were completed via REDCap before receipt of the DVD. Fifty-four of the 81 children (34 male, 20 female; mean age 8y 2mo, SD 1.42, range 7-14y) completed assessments at 1, 2, or 3 months after receiving the DVD.Results: Reductions (baseline to last assessment) in SSS Motor, SSS Impairment, and SLAS scores (all p<0.001) represented change ratios of -15%, -24%, and a -20% respectively. Greatest relative treatment benefit was observed by younger children (ages 7-8y), and by 1 month after receipt of DVD, while a parent global assessment scale showed progressive improvement throughout the study.Interpretation: An instructional DVD for parent-delivered behavioral therapy was a safe, effective intervention for primary CMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive activation of dopamine neurons is critical for natural reward and drug abuse. In contrast, the significance of their spontaneous activity remains elusive. In Drosophila melanogaster, depolarization of the protocerebral anterior medial (PAM) cluster dopamine neurons en masse signals reward to the mushroom body (MB) and drives appetitive memory. Focusing on the functional heterogeneity of PAM cluster neurons, we identified that a single class of PAM neurons, PAM-γ3, mediates sugar reward by suppressing their own activity. PAM-γ3 is selectively required for appetitive olfactory learning, while activation of these neurons in turn induces aversive memory. Ongoing activity of PAM-γ3 gets suppressed upon sugar ingestion. Strikingly, transient inactivation of basal PAM-γ3 activity can substitute for reward and induces appetitive memory. Furthermore, we identified the satiety-signaling neuropeptide Allatostatin A (AstA) as a key mediator that conveys inhibitory input onto PAM-γ3. Our results suggest the significance of basal dopamine release in reward signaling and reveal a circuit mechanism for negative regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: To date only a few published studies have examined the effect of disorder-relevant stressors on heart rate variability (HRV) in participants meeting a clinical diagnosis of GAD, with conflicting results. The primary aim of this study was to determine if GAD is associated with lower HRV at rest, and whether vagal regulation during task varies by type (i.e., baseline, anticipation, imagery, or worry).Methods: This study investigated resting cardiac vagal tone and vagal regulation in a sample of 40 participants with or without a validated diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). High-frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV) was used to index cardiac vagal activity.Results: GAD was associated with vagal withdrawal during both imagery and worry inductions, but no group differences in resting vagal tone or worry were observed.Limitations: Methodological limitations include inherent limits to generalizability of laboratory-based findings; specifically worry induction and cardiac reactivity to lab-based stressors.Conclusions: The results support the notion that GAD is associated with vagal withdrawal during active bouts of idiographic worry and imagery, and question the assumption that GAD is associated with low resting vagal tone. In light of polyvagal theory these findings provide additional support for the presence of emotion regulation deficits in GAD, and identify specific ANS processes that underlie GAD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a disorder with reversible anterograde disturbance of explicit memory, frequently preceded by an emotionally or physically stressful event. By using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) following an episode of TGA, small hippocampal lesions have been observed. Hence it has been postulated that the disorder is caused by the stress-related transient inhibition of memory formation in the hippocampus. In experimental studies, stress has been shown to affect both explicit and implicit learning--the latter defined as learning and memory processes that lack conscious awareness of the information acquired. To test the hypothesis that impairment of implicit learning in TGA is present and related to stress, we determined the effect of experimental exposure to stress on hippocampal activation patterns during an implicit learning paradigm in patients who suffered a recent TGA and healthy matched control subjects. We used a hippocampus-dependent aversive learning procedure (context conditioning with the phases habituation, acquisition, and extinction) during functional MRI following experimental stress exposure (socially evaluated cold pressor test). After a control procedure, controls showed successful learning during the acquisition phase, indicated by increased valence, arousal and contingency ratings to the paired (CON+) vs. the non-paired (CON-) conditioned stimulus, and successful extinction of the conditioned responses. Following stress, acquisition was still successful, however extinction was impaired with persistently increased contingency ratings. In contrast, TGA patients showed impairment of conditioned responses and insufficient extinction after the control procedure, indicated by a lack of significant differences between CON+ and CON- for valence and arousal ratings after the acquisition phase and by significantly increased contingency ratings after the extinction. After stress, aversive learning was not successful with non-significant ratings of all parameters. Concerning brain activation patterns after the control procedure, controls showed increased hippocampal response during acquisition after the control procedure. This was not seen after stress exposure. In TGA patients, we observed an increased response in the right ventral striatum in the acquisition phase following stress. These findings suggest that alterations in implicit learning processes, including impaired hippocampal and increased striatal responses, might play a role in TGA pathophysiology, partly related to acute stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, I respond to commentaries by Morgan (2016) and Schacht (2016) regarding my presentation of the cases of Beth and Amy (Samlin, 2016). Addressing the dialectic raised between Morgan's (2016) support for and Schacht's (2016) skepticism towards the integration of Time-Limited Dynamic Psychotherapy (TLDP) and the Aversion/Attachment Model of Client Suffering (A/AMCS, I organize my response into three broad sections. First, I provide context as to the type of Buddhist tradition from which the A/AMCS draws. In this section, I also address the current debate in Mindfulness-Based Interventions literature regarding the use of explicit vs. implicit Buddhism in treatment. Second, I address issues related to the technical and conceptual integration of the A/AMCS into TLDP. Finally, I re-examine the outcomes of Beth's and Amy's cases from the pragmatic standpoint and offer additional thoughts regarding the differing outcomes of the two cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent times, Buddhist psychological concepts have become appealing to many psychotherapy theorists and practitioners. Included are such notions as mindfulness, the "acceptance" of experience, the nature and causes of suffering, and the use of "skillful means" behaviors and thoughts that are intentionally undertaken to reduce suffering both for oneself and others. While there are a number of cognitive-behavioral therapy treatments that incorporate such Buddhist psychological concepts, little research and practice has been done examining the integration of such concepts and short-term dynamic psychotherapy. As one effort to fill this gap in research, the purpose of this study was to develop and pilot test in two cases--"Beth" and "Amy"--a model (a) that was based on such Buddhist concepts and (b) that would assimilatively integrate with the "home theory" of an established form of modern, relational, short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy, namely, Levenson's (1995, 2010) Time-Limited Dynamic Psychotherapy (TLDP). The new model is called the "Aversion/Attachment Model of Client Suffering" (A/AMCS). The A/AMCS model was conceptually incorporated into Beth's and Amy's case formulations through an expansion of TLDP's case formulation method. Also, the A/AMCS model was technically integrated into TLDP treatment in two ways. First, formal mindfulness meditation practices were implemented with each client by conducting eight half-hour practices before sessions 6-13, in the context of therapy that lasted 23 and 20 sessions, respectively. Second, the treatment sessions included the incorporation of acceptance practices and skillful means strategies. Following the Pragmatic Case Study Method (Fishman, 2005), Beth and Amy's cases are examined both quantitatively and qualitatively. This study concludes with a discussion of the possible reasons for Beth's dramatically positive outcome compared with Amy's only moderately successful outcome, together with a broader discussion of how future research could further examine the integration of Buddhist psychological concepts and shortterm psychodynamic psychotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) plays an important role in pain affect. Previous investigations have reported that the rACC mediates the negative affective component of inflammatory pain and contributed to the aversive state of nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), an activity-dependent neuromodulator in the adult brain, is believed to play a role in the development and maintenance of inflammatory and neuropathic pain in the spinal cord. However, whether and how BDNF in the rACC regulates pain-related aversion due to peripheral nerve injury is largely unknown. Behaviorally, using conditioned place preference (CPP) training in rats, which is thought to reveal spontaneous pain-related aversion, we found that CPP was acquired following spinal clonidine in rats with partial sciatic nerve transection. Importantly, BDNF was upregulated within the rACC in of rats with nerve injury and enhanced the CPP acquisition, while a local injection of a BDNF-tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) antagonist into the rACC completely blocked this process. Finally, we demonstrated that the BDNF/TrkB pathway exerted its function by activating the NR2B receptor, which is widely accepted to be a crucial factor contributing to pain affect. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that the BDNF/TrkB-mediated signaling pathway in the rACC is involved in the development of neuropathic spontaneous pain-related aversion and that this process is dependent upon activation of NR2B receptors. These findings suggest that suppression of the BDNF-related signaling pathway in the rACC may provide a novel strategy to overcome pain-related aversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, the abuse of prescription opioid drugs has become a national health crisis in the United States. Pharmaceutical companies, the Food and Drug Administration, and other government agencies are confronting opioid abuse by developing and commercializing various abuse-deterrent drug delivery technologies. To deter opioid abuse, various strategies including physical barriers, chemical barriers, antagonists, aversive agents, and prodrugs have been investigated. A number of drug products with abuse-deterrent properties have been approved by the FDA over the last six years, while many products and technologies with progressively-improved abuse-deterrence properties are currently being evaluated. This article provides a comprehensive review of the material sciences principles that govern the formulation and processing of a wide range of abuse-deterrent products and technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With their highly sensitive olfactory system, the behaviour and physiology of mice are not only influenced by the scents of conspecifics and other species, but also by many other chemicals in the environment. The constraints of laboratory housing limit a mouse’s capacity to avoid aversive odours that could be present in the environment. Potentially odorous items routinely used for husbandry procedures, such as sanitizing products and gloves, could be perceived by mice as aversive or attractive, and affect their behaviour, physiology and experimental results. A survey was sent to research institutions in the UK to enquire about husbandry practices that could impact on the olfactory environment of the mouse. Responses were obtained from 80 individuals working in 51 institutions. Husbandry practices varied considerably. Seventy percent of respondents reported always wearing gloves for handling mice, with nitrile being the most common glove material (94%) followed by latex (23%) and vinyl (14%). Over six different products were listed for cleaning surfaces, floors, anaesthesia and euthanasia chambers and behavioural apparatus. In all cases Trigene™ (now called Anistel™) was the most common cleaning product used (43, 41, 40 and 49%, respectively). Depending on the attribute considered, between 7 and 19% of respondents thought that cleaning products definitely, or were likely to, have strong effects on standardization, mouse health, physiology or behaviour. Understanding whether and how these odours affect mouse welfare will help to refine mouse husbandry and experimental procedures through practical recommendations, to improve the quality of life of laboratory animals and the experimental data obtained. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Several questions have been raised in recent years about the euthanasia of laboratory rodents. Euthanasia using inhaled agents is considered to be a suitable aesthetic method for use with a large number of animals simultaneously. Nevertheless, its aversive potential has been criticized in terms of animal welfare. The data available regarding the use of carbon dioxide (CO2), inhaled anaesthetics (such as isoflurane, sevoflurane, halothane and enflurane), as well as carbon monoxide and inert gases are discussed throughout this review. Euthanasia of fetuses and neonates is also addressed. A table listing currently available information to ease access to data regarding euthanasia techniques using gaseous agents in laboratory rodents was compiled. Regarding better animal welfare, there is currently insufficient evidence to advocate banning or replacing CO2 in the euthanasia of rodents; however, there are hints that alternative gases are more humane. The exposure to a volatile anaesthetic gas before loss of consciousness has been proposed by some scientific studies to minimize distress; however, the impact of such a measure is not clear. Areas of inconsistency within the euthanasia literature have been highlighted recently and stem from insufficient knowledge, especially regarding the advantages of the administration of isoflurane or sevoflurane over CO2, or other methods, before loss of consciousness. Alternative methods to minimize distress may include the development of techniques aimed at inducing death in the home cage of animals. Scientific outcomes have to be considered before choosing the most suitable euthanasia method to obtain the best results and accomplish the 3Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abuse-deterrent formulations (ADFs) are technologically sophisticated pharmaceutical formulations that impede manipulation and extraction of opioids and/or provoke unpleasant effects when they are taken in excessive quantity. This is implemented by creating physical barriers, inseparably combining the opioid with an opioid antagonist or adding aversive agents to the formulation. These pharmaceutical changes may potentially alter the pharmacokinetics and consequently the pharmacodynamics of the opioid. In this review, comparative evidence on pharmacokinetic differences between abuse-deterrent and classical formulations of the same opioids is summarized; furthermore, pharmacodynamic differences, with a focus on analgesia and abuse-related symptoms, are addressed. Most of the 12 studies comparing opioid pharmacokinetics have judged the physically intact ADF as being bioequivalent to the corresponding classical formulation. Pharmacokinetic differences have, however, been reported with physically manipulated ADFs and have ranged from moderate deviations from bioequivalence to complete changes in the pharmacokinetic profile (e.g. from a sustained-release formulation to a fast-release formulation). Pharmacodynamic effects were assessed in 14 comparative studies, which reported that intact ADFs usually provided clinically equivalent analgesia and clear advantages with respect to their addiction potential. However, withdrawal symptoms could be induced by the ADFs, although rarely and, in particular, when the ADFs had been physically altered. This evidence suggests that opioid ADFs are a working concept resulting in mostly minor pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic differences in comparison with classical formulations; however, they may deviate from this equivalence when physically altered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work has suggested separate developmental periods within the broader framework of adolescence, with data suggesting distinct alterations and vulnerabilities within these intervals. While previous research has suggested reduced sensitivity to the aversive effects of alcohol in adolescence relative to adults, a more detailed ontogeny of this effect has yet to be conducted. The adolescent brain undergoes significant transitions throughout adolescence, including in regions linked with drug reward and aversion. The current study aimed to determine the ontogeny of ethanol aversion by utilizing a conditioned taste aversion procedure at six different ages to test the hypothesis that the transitions into, through, and out of adolescence are associated with ontogenetic alterations in sensitivity to the aversive properties of ethanol. Non-deprived animals given Boost® as the conditioned stimulus (CS) were used in Experiment 1, whereas Experiment 2 used water-restricted animals provided with a saccharin/sucrose solution as the CS. In both experiments, an attenuated sensitivity to the aversive properties of ethanol was evident in adolescents compared to adults, although more age differences were apparent in water deprived animals than when a highly palatable CS was given to ad libitum animals. Overall, the data suggest an attenuated sensitivity to the aversive properties of ethanol that is most pronounced during pre- and early adolescence, declining thereafter to reach the enhanced aversive sensitivity of adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) often experience negative distorted images of their appearance, and research suggests these may be linked to memories of adverse events such as bullying or teasing. This study evaluates imagery rescripting (ImR) as an intervention for BDD. In this article, we present a multiple-baseline single-case experimental design testing imagery rescripting as a brief, stand-alone intervention, with six individuals with BDD that related to aversive memories. The impact of the intervention was assessed by self-reported daily measures of symptom severity (preoccupation with appearance, appearance-related checking behaviors, appearance-related distress, and strength of belief that their main problem is their appearance) and standardized clinician ratings of BDD severity (Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale modified for BDD). Four out of six of the participants responded positively to the intervention, with clinically meaningful improvement in symptomatology. Overall response was rapid; improvements began within the first week post-ImR intervention. From a small sample it is cautiously concluded that imagery rescripting may show promise as a module in cognitive-behavioral therapy for BDD, and is worthy of further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]