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A lab experiment “Physio-chemical characteristics of blended beverages (RTS) prepared from guava and pineapple” was conducted during winter season of 2021 at Post Harvest technology Laboratory, Department of Horticulture, Naini Agricultural Institute, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India. The experimental material consisted of ten treatments replicated thrice under Completely Randomized Design with combination of different recipes including two standard recipes without blending of guava and pineapple with varying levels of TSS for RTS. The blended RTS prepared from different recipes and blending ratio were also analysed periodically at 30 days interval for their various chemical constituents. The blended RTS organoleptically evaluated by adopting 9-point Hedonic rating scale and observations were recorded for their chemical changes during storage for 90 days. A critical analysis of physical composition of guava and pineapple fruits revealed that average fruit weight was recorded 5 kg and 5kg, pulp weight 4.2 kg and 4 kg, weight of non-edible waste 880g and 970g, respectively. Among the chemical composition, the TSS was recorded (12.31%, 12.80%), acidity (0.43%, 0.42%), ascorbic acid (243 mg/100 ml, 28.8 mg/100 ml), pH (2.41, 2.29). Among various recipe tried in this investigation, the nectar prepared from the treatment T4 (Guava pulp (40%) + Pineapple juice (60%)) recorded highest TSS, Ascorbic acid, organoleptic score with respect to aroma, taste and overall acceptability. During storage of RTS the acidity, TSS, showed an increasing trend with increasing period of storage (0 to 90 days) under ambient condition. While, there was a decreasing trend of ascorbic acid, pH and organoleptic score during storage period up-to 90 days of storage under ambient condition.

The present investigation was carried with aim to know the effect of integrated nutrient management on fruiting of aonla cv. Francis. The experiment was conducted in two consecutive years. The experiment comprised of ten treatments, replicated thrice with randomized block Design. The study revealed the fruit set and retention per cent for both the year was noted maximum with the use of T7, whereas T6 was found to equally good with T1. The maximum fruit size was recorded with the use of T7 during both the year which was at par with the soil application T6. The study concluded that the application of 75% RDF + 30 kg Vermicompost + 250g Azotobacter + 250g PSB produced quality fruit yield.

The uncertainties associated with oil and gas field reduces with time. When oil fields mature, there is a potential to better understand the field due to the availability of historic production and injection data. In this research, a novel approach is presented which uses data analytics techniques to optimize waterflooding in a Gulf of Suez field. A combination of qualitative and quantitative techniques has been applied to develop a new workflow for analyzing and optimizing waterflood. The presented technique involves combining qualitative analysis (random forest) and quantitative analysis (capacitance resistance model, CRM) to obtain a waterflood strategy for the producing field. The Random forest algorithm (machine learning technique) is used to compare two time series signals – production data and injection data from producer/injector wells. The data from each injector and surrounding producers are used for random forest analysis to identify the most effective and ineffective injector-producer pairs. Next, the qualitative analysis using the capacitance resistance model (CRM) is used to determine gain values between each injector-producer pair and to also obtain new injection rates for increasing oil recovery. Results obtained from the random forest model helps reduce the number of unknowns and further validate results in CRM. The production and injection data reveal the most effective and ineffective injector-producer pairs that are the result of changes occurring in the reservoir during waterflood. Accordingly, the use of data analytics technique of random forest analysis and CRM on production injection data helps improve reservoir characterization. This combined analysis for the presented field uniquely helps identify effective and ineffective injector-producer pairs to determine the efficiency of waterflooding. The results from this novel analytical technique are presented for the Gulf of Suez field. These results compare well with the streamline approach presented for the same Gulf of Suez field. In summary, a new method for reservoir surveillance using data analytics technique of random forest in combination with the capacitance resistance model is presented. The novel combination of the qualitative and quantitative methods presented also helps adapt the specific characteristic of this field – the presence of water drive (pseudo injector). The modeling of water drive as an additional injector (pseudo injector) improves the gain coefficient obtained from the CRM. The comparison with streamlines helps benchmark the model results especially in cases where such secondary data is not available. The model presented can be adapted to similar mature fields under waterfloods. This new approach can be used to optimize water injection more frequently using operations data being gathered for implementing digitization strategies for oil and gas companies.

An aggravation in prevalence, magnitude and duration of environmental stresses has posed a serious threat to global food security. Exploitation of microbial organisms has been hypothesized to play an important role in mitigating stresses and enhancing the yields of stress tolerant varieties in major field crops including rice. In this study, preliminary on-station experiments were conducted to evaluate the potential of various microbial formulations for enhancing the performance of stress tolerant rice varieties under rainfed ecologies of Bihar, India. The best performing formulation (Trichoderma harzianum strain S2) was selected for on-farm evaluation over years and locations. The studies conducted through on-farm trials and village level demonstrations indicated that the application of Trichoderma harzianum strain S2 along with IRRI (International Rice Research Institute) improved BMP (best management practices) was most effective for enhancing the yield and yield attributes of stress tolerant rice varieties. This treatment revealed the highest grain yields of 4.91 t ha−1 for Sahbhagi Dhan during 2013 and 4.81 t ha−1 for Swarna-Sub1 during 2014. Although, the application of Trichoderma strain S2 along with farmer’s practice had positive impact on yield parameters over the sole use farmer’s practice, the advantage obtained was relatively low. This treatment showed the maximum grain yields of 4.53 t ha−1 for Sahbhagi Dhan and 4.08 t ha−1 for Swarna-Sub1 during the wet season of 2013. Thus, the present work advocates for an effective use of microbes along with inherent abiotic stress tolerance of the crop and best management practices, to alleviate stresses under field conditions.

Understanding the speciation of metal ions in heterogeneous hydrogen-bonded deep eutectic solvents (DES) has immense importance for their wide range of applications in green technology, environmental remediation, and nuclear industry. Unfortunately, the fundamental nature of the interaction between DES and actinide ions is almost completely unknown. In the present work, we outline the speciation, solvation mechanism, and redox chemistry of uranyl ion (UO

Water flooding is an established method to increase oil production. In this research, we present a novel approach that uses data mining techniques on the operations data on a complex mature oil field located in the Gulf of Suez, currently being water flooded. We show how such methods help improve reservoir characterization for this specific field is particularly challenging because of its geological complexity and field performance. The continuous recording of production and injection data presents a new opportunity to apply analytical approaches to reservoir management. Such approaches provide an alternative to the traditional history-match model update and prediction that is not only time-consuming but also carry forwards all subsurface uncertainties. A combination of qualitative (cross-correlation analysis) and quantitative analysis (capacitance resistance model) is used to obtain an overall waterflood injection strategy for this Gulf of Suez field. In this manuscript, we focus on the analysis obtained from cross-correlation analysis. The presented analysis helps identify connectivity between wells in the reservoir during waterflood. The method presented is also adapted to specific characteristics of this field - water drive production in this model. We present evidence of how salinity data can be used to further justify the linkages between the different wells obtained from the cross-correlation analysis. We also show comparison between results from this analytical technique and the streamline approach. This comparison with salinity and streamlines helps benchmark the model results especially in cases where such secondary data (salinity/streamlines) are not available. The results presented in this research can be adapted to any waterflooded field to optimize recovery at frequent intervals, where injection and production data is continuously available.

Water flooding is an established method of secondary recovery to increase oil production. While previous research has focused on designing waterflood operations, there are no tools to evaluate the efficacy of those designs and optimize it frequently based on data available during the course of water flooding operations. In this research, we present a novel approach of using data mining techniques to increase oil recovery using operations data from a field undergoing water flooding. The results presented in this research can be adapted to any field to optimize recovery at frequent intervals, where injection and production data is continuously available. Operations data from a current water flooding field is used to improve water injection strategy by using a combination of qualitative (cross correlation analysis) and quantitative analysis (capacitance resistance model). Field data obtained from each injector and the surrounding producers are used for cross correlation analysis that enable identifying thief zones. The qualitative insights obtained from the cross-correlation analysis are used to improve the capacitance resistance model for the field. The improved capacitance resistance model is used to obtain redistribution of water among injectors with the purpose of increasing oil recovery. Reservoir simulation prediction of oil recovery on the two cases (the previous benchmark case and the new optimized injection strategy obtained using data mining techniques) is presented. It can be seen that the redistribution of water obtained using this novel approach improves oil estimates in the range of 5-10%. A field case of using data mining techniques of cross correlation analysis and capacitance resistance modeling is presented as a means to improve reservoir characterization using operations data. The insights obtained by using a combination of these two methods are used to redistribute water injection in a producing field. This new approach can be used to optimize water injection at frequent intervals based on the operations data obtained from the field. Operational challenges in implementing redistribution of water injection rates frequently are highlighted for the sake of other operators implementing such an approach.

In this experimental study, karanja biodiesel was prepared by two step transesterification process using potassium hydroxide as catalyst. This extracted biodiesel was used to determine performance,...

The integrated reservoir management study was initiated to identify the best fit for purpose dynamic model for decision making with increased confidence in production forecasts and proposed field development plan. The mature oil field with complex geology and huge uncertainties in production allocation is located in the Gulf of Suez. These conditions made it necessary to evaluate and select the best suited approach between the deterministic and probabilistic approach. Considering the geological complexity and field performance behavior, integrated reservoir modeling approach was selected to achieve objectives of the study. During that process, the screening for the best suited methods such as probabilistic or deterministic was made. Due to the heavily faulted and compartmentalized nature of the field with an incomplete understanding of probability ranges and relationship between different variables none of the approaches is perfect. The acceptable field history match was achieved to serve the basis for future field development and to increase the current production rates. The chosen deterministic approach illustrates how the global and regional uncertainties can be narrowed down by consequent analysis and inclusion of observed well data such as RFT, PLT, production water salinity, tracer data etc. The accurate estimation of remaining production potential in different reservoir units was delivered. The promising prospects in the eastern blocks adjacent to the main producing field were identified. The estimated incremental oil production within next 5 years is around ~10 MMSTB. Above mentioned results were considered as a basis for the license extension which was about to expire in the year 2017. This integrated approach was helpful for understanding the difficulties in complex oil field simulation study, knowledge sharing between management of joint partners, G&G experts, and reservoir engineers. The upstream industry projects demand the optimal solutions for business decisions under prevailing uncertain conditions. The presented case study provides a practical approach to achieve it. The lessons learned from the study may give a guidance to similar mature field development in the region and worldwide.

Public health impacts on weather and climate local as well as globally affected by the anthropogenic as well as natural activities. There are various sources which contribute the environment to an appreciable extent. A lot of efforts are in progress to know the significant contributors and their effects. Therefore the aim of this work was to comprehensively review most of the studies published on this burning issue of air quality on weather including the Government India initiative, field measurements and modelling as well as laboratory studies.

This paper contains information on Cloud computing and various services provided by it. Services provided are SaaS, PaaSI the customer could pay for only those services which they need.

Since the potential of relative permeability modifying (RPM) gels for water shut-off was discovered, many researchers focused on understanding the mechanisms by which, these gels perform their disproportionate permeability reduction (DPR) behavior. The focus on this concept and developments in experimental methods and laboratory equipments, have led to clearer and reasonable explanations for the mentioned behavior of these gels. However, the focus on the experimental scope of these gels has resulted in lack of studies on the numerical simulation of the RPM gels injection in the reservoir. In this paper, it is tried to use the achieved experimental knowledge by the mentioned experiments, to analyze the feasibility of the current approaches and to come up with a new approach. Polymer option of commercial black oil simulators is the first approach analyzed and it is proved that using this approach results in false prediction of the relative permeabilities in the treated cells after gel adsorption. The reason is the assumption of the simulators about the effect of the polymer adsorption on oil relative permeability reduction. An alternative to polymer option is defining the gels as solid particles and interpolating the relative permeabilities between the initial and treated sets as a function of the defined solid particles adsorption to the rock surface. Since solid particles cannot be present in the injecting stream, they have to be defined as liquid particles and turned to solid phase in the reservoir via the reactions. Defining reactions necessitates having the simulation in compositional model which is sometimes not favorable due to larger run times and required PVT data for fluid modeling for a compositional run. Surfactant option has the interpolation capability too and it is run in black oil model. In other words it has the capabilities of the compositional approach, but due to its black oil formulation, run times are shorter and no fluid modeling is required. However, using surfactant option of a simulator, changes the capillary pressure and results in reductions in interfacial tension between oil and water. These EOR effects of surfactant presence in the reservoir has to limited by manipulating the defined functions. The approach is then validated against a single well treatment observed data and could reproduce the observed production rates in the 18 months period after the treatment. Validation of the approach permits us for using this approach to simulate RPM treatments in different scales.

Relative Permeability Modifying (RPM) gels are cross-linked polymers which reduce the water and oil relative permeability disproportionately and reduce the water production from a single well. RPM gels are the preferred choice for water shut-off when a well with no zonal isolation is producing from multiple layers among which, no cross-flow exists and at least one layer is producing relatively dry oil. In these conditions application of RPM gels limits the water production until water block or rarely gel desorption ends the favorable effect of the RPM gels. In this study, a black oil reservoir in north of Germany is screened to examine the feasibility of RPM gels water shut-off treatment. This homogeneous reservoir has been under production for the past 25 years and is heavily water-flooded from early years of production due to its weak drive mechanism. The reservoir is producing with an average of 75 % water-cut and requires urgent water shut-off solutions. In this paper the screening process with additional focus on the simulation stage of the screening process is described in details. The reason for the additional focus on the simulation part is lack of documented studies on simulation aspect of such projects which has led to non- negligible problems in simulating such treatments. Once the reservoir is screened considering the petro physical properties of the rocks surrounding the production wells, a water shut-off index is defined for each of the production wells which takes into account the necessity of the well for treatment as well as the risks involved by the quality of the simulation model. Based on the water shut-off index the most promising well is chosen and 3 cycles of RPM gel injection in this well is simulated. Several scenarios are defined to find out the optimum gel volume based on the incremental oil production. The best scenario resulted in 1.54 Million bbl of field incremental oil compared to the "do nothing scenario" in a period of 8 years, performing 3 consecutive gel injections. It is tried to present a detailed work-flow for screening and appraisal of such projects for the similar reservoir and operational conditions.

A 12-week feeding trials was conducted to evaluate the use of animal and plant protein, in combination with glucosamine source for Asian catfish, Clarias batrachus (average weight 2.1–2.6 g). This study was performed to evaluate the effect on fish growth performance by replacing animal protein with a blend of vegetable protein sources. In experiment, six (40.45–43.51 % crude protein, 16.45–16.76 kJ/g energy, and crude lipid 5.01–6.69 %) practical diets were formulated. The animal and plant protein component of the diets was progressively added with glucosamine 0.0 %, 0.5 %, 5.0 % and 10.0 % with fish meal, silkworm pupae, soybean meal (SBM) and casein (F1, PAG 0:100:0.5; F2, PAG 0:100:5.0; F3, PAG 0:100:10.0; F4, PAG 25:75:0.5; F5, PAG 25:75:5.0; F6, PAG 25:75:10.0). The experimental diets were fed to triplicate groups of fingerlings ad libitum and results were compared with control feed (natural feed). Growth performance and feed utilization efficiency of catfish, fed diets with animal protein are better than those of plant protein supplemented feeds. After 12-week study the final weight gain recorded as 18.6, 19.7, 19.9, 16.3, 15.2, 15.6 and 13.1 g in control fed fishes. The best growth among the animal protein group (F1–F3) were recorded as 745.5 %, 838.1 % and 765.2 % respectively. The growth percentage in 25 % replaced feeds (F4, PAG 25:75:0.5; F5, PAG 25:75:5.0; F6, PAG 25:75:10.0), recorded as 579.2 %, 484.6 % and 609.1 % respectively whereas in control it was 469.6 %. The results suggests that the growth is better in total animal protein feeds and the best growth (p < 0.05) recorded in the feed incorporated with 10 % glucosamine. The data on growth and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were considered animal protein content of the diet along with glucosamine has better growth performances. The survival was recorded in F1–F6 as 88 %, 83 %, 76 %, 78 %, 80 % and 75 % respectively and in control it is recorded as 68 %. The hepatosomatic and viscerosomatic indices ranged between 0.78–1.51 and 1.9–3.03 respectively in F1 to F6. The feed efficiency in terms of FCR recorded as 2.34–2.95 among all the feeding trials. Results indicate that animal protein rich diets with glucosamine were much acceptable than natural diets for Asian catfish, C. batrachus and the potential for replacing animal protein with SBM in the diets of fish need more evaluation along with synergistic approach of incorporating glucosamine. Inclusion of plant protein blend affected growth performance and reduced digestibility, but was not compensated by increased feed intake.

This article reports on field experiments with 4 different rotations that are commonly used throughout Haryana in NW India (rice–wheat, cotton–wheat, pearl millet–wheat, cluster bean–wheat), where we assess wheat yield and chapatti quality measures with different crop establishment methods and input of micronutrients. In a series of experiments conducted on farmers’ fields in 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 winter seasons, the addition of micronutrients and sulphur to wheat crops was used alongside the use of a common farmer practice, the use of farmyard manure (FM) and best practice inputs of N-fertilizer (150 kg N ha−1), P-fertilizer (26 kg P ha−1) and K-fertilizer (33 kg K ha−1). The application of FM with the recommended NPK treatment produced 9–13% more grain yield in the rice–wheat rotation when compared with the recommended NPK only treatment. Given that the farm sites used here had low levels of soil P, this may suggest that the recommended rate of 26 kg P ha−1 for the rice–wheat rotation is too low. The addition of FM did not improve any grain quality outcomes at any of the sites. There were no yield responses with S application with any of the rotations but the S input resulted in more wheat protein from all sites (average 8%). The addition of S also gave similar increases in grain hardness and the chapatti score. The inclusion of micronutrients (boron, copper, iron, zinc and manganese) with the recommended NPK treatment did not increase the grain yield at any of the sites when compared with the recommended NPK treatment, and sometimes, but not consistently, gave small responses with protein, grain hardness and chapatti score. In concurrent experiments wheat growth and chapatti quality were compared in zero till and conventionally sown systems, and with and without S fertilizer amendment. Here too there were no grain yield responses to S, and the protein, grain hardness and chapatti score were increased with S addition. Grain yields with zero till and conventional wheat were similar in the rice–wheat system and zero till sowing resulted in small increases in yield at all of the non-rice sites. The grain from the zero till treatments had higher protein (1–3%), grain hardness (3–10%) and chapatti score from all 4 rotations. Zero till has substantial adoption in the rice–wheat districts of Haryana but little farmer awareness and adoption in the areas where the other rotations are used. The data given here show that with zero tillage and an integrated practice of nutrient management farmers in Haryana can maintain grain yields of wheat whilst improving quality outcomes.

Wheat in Haryana (NW India) is grown as a winter crop in an annual sequence with rice, cotton, pearl millet or cluster bean as the main monsoon crops. Higher wheat yields in Haryana are associated with the use of modern varieties, increase in fertiliser use, improved irrigation practice and conservation tillage, and the recommendation to farmers for N fertiliser rates and timing and irrigation practice have an emphasis on optimising yield and input efficiencies. In India the importance to consumers of product quality does exist and, although the market place presently does not actively reward farmers for better quality wheat, the need for creating suitable and targeted marketing opportunities is now recognised. This paper examines aspects of input efficiencies and focuses on combinations of N-fertiliser and irrigation input in wheat crops grown with these four rotations (rice–wheat, cotton–wheat, pearl millet–wheat and cluster bean–wheat). Management practices that optimise grain production as well targeting grain that achieves best chapatti (Indian flat bread) quality are evaluated within a split-plot experiment where 4 irrigation schedule treatments were split with nitrogen management treatments involving a 2-way or 3-way split of N fertiliser. With the rice–wheat system, there were no differences between different split timings of N with grain yield, however with the 3 other wheat systems the 3 way split of N-fertiliser application, with N applied equally at N-fertiliser applied at seeding, early tillering and first node stage, always gave the highest yield. With all 4 rotations the highest protein level was achieved (range 11.8–12.5%) with this 3-way N application split. Grain yield increased in a step-wise manner as additional irrigation was implemented with all rotations and the highest protein outcomes were achieved with the least irrigations. The apparent recovery of N fertiliser applied was similar and highest with the 3-way split, and the 2-way split that did not include a basal N fertiliser application. Different rates of N fertiliser were included in separate experiments using the 3-way split of N application, and with the rice–wheat rotation the GreenSeeker instrument was used to establish the rate for the third application of N. The application of extra N-fertiliser with the non rice–wheat rotations produced no additional grain yield with an increase in the N-fertiliser input beyond 150 kg N ha−1, although protein and N-content increased incrementally. Grain hardness and chapatti score trended higher with increases in N-fertiliser input but the increases were relatively small. The use of the GreenSeeker instrument with the rice–wheat rotation resulted in N saving of 21–25 kg N ha−1 with similar grain yield, protein and grain hardness to that provided by using the recommended 150 kg N ha−1. Where the GreenSeeker was used the apparent recovery was 70–75% compared with 60% with the wheat receiving the recommended 150 kg N ha−1, suggesting farmers are likely to be over-fertilising their wheat crop. The best yields obtained in these experiments were about 5.5–6.0 t ha−1 and these yields are consistent with a decade-long attainable yield identified for wheat in rice–wheat rotation for Haryana. If farmers can achieve market recognition for chapatti quality, and with the use of appropriate varieties, then farmers can assume that the best practice outlined here for optimising grain yield with integrated nutrient and soil management will be the same practice that optimises chapatti quality.

The HYDRUS-ID model was experimentally tested for water balance and salt build up in soil under rice crop irrigated with different salinity water (ECiw) of 0.4, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 dS m−1 in micro-lysimeters filled with sandy loam soil. Differences of means between measured (M) and HYDRUS-1D predicted (P) values of bottom flux (Q o) and leachate EC as tested by paired t test were not found significant at P = 0.05 and a close agreement between RMSE values showed the applicability of the HYDRUS-1D to simulate percolation and salt concentration in the micro-lysimeters under rice crop. Potential ET values of rice as obtained from CROPWAT matched well with model predicted and measured one at all ECiw treatments. The model predicted root water uptake varied from 66.1 to 652.7 mm and the maximum daily salt concentration in the root zone was 0.46, 2.3, 4.5, 6.7, 8.4 and 10.2 me cm−3 in 0.4, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 dS m−1 ECiw treatments, respectively. The grain production per unit evapotranspiration ( $$ {\text{WP}}_{{{\text{ET}}_{\text{a}} }} $$ ) value of 2.56 in ECiw of 0.4 dS m−1 treatment declined to 1.31 with ECiw of 2 dS m−1. The $$ {\text{WP}}_{{{\text{ET}}_{\text{a}} }} $$ reduced to one-fifth when percolation was included in the productivity determination. Similarly, the water productivity in respect of total dry matter production (TDM) was also reduced in different treatments. Therefore, the model predicted values of water balance can be effectively utilized to calculate the water productivity of rice crop.

A 12- week feeding trials was conducted to evaluate the use of animal and plant protein, in combination with Glucosamine source for Asian Catfish, Clarias batrachus (av. wt. 2.2+0.009 to 2.6+0.03 g). This study was performed to evaluate the effect on fish growth performance by replacing animal protein with vegetable protein sources. In experiment, six (37.40 to 43.52 % crude protein, 16.15 to 16.76 kJ/g energy, and crude lipid 3.33 to 6.69%) practical diets were formulated. The animal and plant protein component of the diets was progressively added with glucosamine 0.5, 5.0 and 10.0% with fish meal, silkworm pupae, soybean meal and casein (F-1, PAG 0:100:0.5; F-2, PAG 0:100:5.0; F-3, PAG 0:100:10.0; F-4, PAG 50:50:0.5; F-5, PAG 50:50:5.0; F-6, PAG 50:50:10.0). The experimental moist diets were fed to triplicate groups of fingerlings at 10% of body weight and results were compared with control feed. Growth performance and feed utilization efficiency of catfish, fed diets with animal protein are better than those of plant protein supplemented feeds. After 12-week study the final weight gain recorded as 18.6g, 19.7g, 19.9g, 14.6g, 14.9g, 13.9g and 13.1g in F1 to F6 and in control fed fishes respectively. The percentage weight gain among the animal protein group (F-1, F2, F-3) were recorded as 615.4%, 756.5% and 804.5%, respectively. And the percentage weight gain in 50% replaced feeds (F-4, PAG 50:50:0.5; F-5, PAG 50:50:5.0; F-6, PAG 50:50:10.0), recorded as 563.6%, 547.8% and 479.2% respectively whereas in control it was 403.8%. The results suggests that the growth is better in total animal protein feeds and the best percentage weight gain (p

In the 1950s, rice (Oryza sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) accounted for only one third of the grain production in India. This proportion rose to more than 70% by 1989 (Maklin and Rao, 1991). One third of the irrigated rice and half of the irrigated wheat in South Asia come from the rice-wheat cropping system. Rice-wheat systems occupy 24 million ha of cultivated land in the Asian subtropics. In South Asia, the system occupies about 13.5 million ha (10 million in India, 2.2 million in Pakistan, 0.8 million in Bangladesh, and 0.5 million in Nepal), extending across the Indo-Gangetic floodplain into the Himalayan foothills (Ladha et aI., 2000). Rice-wheat systems cover about 32% of the total rice area and 42% of the total wheat area in these four countries, and they account for one quarter to one third of the total rice and wheat production (Hobbs andMorris, 1996; Huke et aI., 1994a, b; Woodhead et aI., 1994a, b). In the first decade after the introduction of improved rice and wheat varieties, grain production grew rapidly, propelled by increased cropped area as well as by higher yields. More recently, however, the area devoted to rice and wheat has stabilized, and further area expansion seems out of the question-in fact, cropped area may even decline in the years to come (Hobbs et aI., 1998). The need for higher yields has come at a time when evidence is accumulating that growth in rice and wheat yields has started slowing down in the high-potential agricultural areas of northwestern India and Pakistan. There is evidence of declining partial and total factor productivity* (PFP or TFP) (Hobbs and Morris, 1996; Ali and Byerlee, 2000; Murgai, 2000). A diagnostic study of constraints in rice-wheat cropping systems was conducted by CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, CIMMYT, IRRI, and ICAR and showed that a high population of Phalaris minor-a serious weed of wheat in the rice-wheat cropping system-and a decline in soil productivity were two major constraints of the system (Harrington et aI., 1992). Other causes of decline in the TFP of the rice-wheat cropping system throughout the region included declines and changes in soil organic matter (SOM), a gradual decline in the supply of soil nutrients causing nutrient (macro and micro) imbalances due to inappropriate fertilizer applications, a scarcity of surface and groundwater, and in some places poor water quality (Paroda et al., 1994). At the time of the diagnostic survey conducted in 1991 (Harrington et aI., 1992), scientists at Haryana Agricultural University were gathering evidence that herbicide (e.g., isoproturon) resistance had developed in Phalaris minor, and it was confirmed in 1992-1993 (Malik and Singh, 1993, 1995). These studies provided the scientific community with a framework for setting research priorities (Hobbs, 1994). The resource conservation technology requirements differed in various areas of the IndoGangetic Plains. Herbicide resistance and problems with lowering water tables were major factors in Haryana, India (Malik et aI., 1998). To answer these sustainability issues, work began on no-tillage and bed planting in wheat in collaboration with the Rice-Wheat Consortium for Indo-Gangetic Plains, CIMMYT-Mexico and ACIAR-Australia in 1997.