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From assisting division to molecular transport, cells depend on microtubules for several vital functions. Their fundamental nature is reflected in the extensive links between disease and mutations in their building blocks: heterodimers of tubulin-α and -β proteins. The first reported tubulin mutations were solely associated with neurodevelopment. Since then, disorders including bleeding disorders and infertility have also been attributed to tubulins, with several isotypes in the tubulin family now implicated in disease. However, the mechanisms governing how these mutations give rise to disease remain unclear. This thesis integrates computational and experimental strategies to address this question. First, I focused on comparing isotypes using both approaches. Bioinformatic tools allowed me to evaluate how tubulin isotypes differ in tissue expression, sequence divergence and evolutionary constraint. I then complemented this by utilising cell biology techniques to investigate the capability of tubulin isotypes to be incorporated into microtubules. Through this work, I could also interrogate strategies for tagging tubulin isotypes in vivo. Next, I systematically analysed mutations across the tubulin family to understand how they can result in disease with the view to improve predictions of their phenotypic effects. Variant effect predictors (VEPs) and structural analyses showed an inadequate ability to distinguish between pathogenic mutations and putatively benign variants. Moreover, their performance was markedly worse in genes linked to diseases outside of neurodevelopment. I then highlighted the mutations that had the poorest mutations so I could characterise them experimentally. Mutant tubulin incorporated into microtubules successfully, indicating that their pathogenic phenotype results from dominant-negative effects. Finally, I interrogated mutations in TUBβ4B associated with primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), a disease newly ascribed to tubulin. As these mutations varied in structural location and predicted effect, they also provided an excellent case study for identifying differences in pathogenic mechanisms. Indeed, experimental characterisation in vitro showed that mutations occurring close to the heterodimeric binding interface and predicted more likely to be pathogenic (P259S and P259L) disrupted heterodimer formation. In contrast, a mutation predicted more poorly (P358S) close to the microtubule lumen formed a stable heterodimer, suggesting it may exert dominant-negative effects. In vivo experiments confirmed these differences in terms of microtubule incorporation. Overall, this thesis highlights tubulin mutations as a blind spot for pathogenicity prediction, and this is potentially attributed to their ability to cause disease through dominant-negative effects.

The scope of this project was to utilise supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) extraction technology as a pre-treatment step in a holistic C4 biorefinery in order to extract added value metabolites from C4 agro-residues. The lipid profile of three different types of C4 biomass agro-residues namely miscanthus, maize and sugarcane was studied. Wax extractions with organic solvents and scCO2 were conducted on different parts of the plant. A diverse range of hydrophobic molecules were identified including long-chain fatty acids, n-policosanols, fatty aldehydes, n-alkanes, wax esters, sterols, steroid ketones and triterpenoids. The extracts exhibited significant differences in melting temperatures, highlighting the possibility for utilisation in different applications. The advantages of scCO2 extraction over conventional organic extraction are clearly demonstrated in this work. Herein, the first reported fractionation of maize stover wax gave rise to three waxy fractions. Fraction A consisted of high molecular weight compounds while Fraction B was predominantly phytosterols. Fraction C had the lowest melting profile and the wax was tested as a renewable antifoaming agent. Fraction C successfully reduced foam and had no negative effects on the detergent performance. The extraction of wax from C4 biomass only utilises around 1% of the total biomass. In order to have a systemic view of a C4 biomass processing scenario where scCO2 extraction is integrated into a biorefinery, the effects of scCO2 extraction on the downstream processing of maize stover and miscanthus were studied. In fermentation of maize stover for surfactant production, results show that there was a higher glucose consumption (19%) and greater growth (18%) for the scCO2-extracted maize stover when compared to non-treated maize stover. In fermentation experiments for ethanol production a 40% increase in overall ethanol production for the scCO2-extracted maize stover was obtained. Saccharification results on miscanthus leaves showed a 22% increase in sugar release for scCO2 extracts. Finally, this work cannot be developed further unless an economic evaluation of the manufacturing process is done. This is the first time an economic assessment for the scCO2 extraction of waxes from biomass has been carried out. The cost for miscanthus and maize stover wax extraction was found to be €148/kg of wax and €88.19/kg of wax respectively. If the biomass was pelletised, leaves were solely taken into consideration (4 times the wax yield) and the biomass was combusted following the extraction, then the cost of the wax could be reduced to as much as €8.60/kg of wax for miscanthus and €1.97/kg of wax for maize.