Search

Knowledge about how weather conditions affect travel behavior in different user groups and contexts is relevant for planners and policymakers to facilitate sustainable transportation systems. We aimed to assess the influence of day-to-day weather on cycling for transportation among parents of young children with access to different bike types (e-bike vs non e-bike) in a natural study setting over nine months. We hypothesized less impact of weather variability on cycling when using an e-bike compared with a non e-bike. A randomized, controlled trial was conducted in Southern Norway. The intervention group (n = 18) was in random order equipped with an e-bike with trailer for child transportation (n = 6), a cargo (longtail) bike (n = 6) and a traditional bike with trailer (n = 6), each for three months. These 18 participants reported cycling on 832 out of 3276 person-days (25%). We used dynamic structural equation modeling for intensive longitudinal data to examine the relations between daily weather conditions, bike type (e-bike vs traditional bike), and cycling (dichotomized daily at yes or no). Air temperature (positively) and wind speed (negatively) were both credible predictors of cycling, whereas the other predictors (precipitation in the morning (yes or no) and presence of snow (yes or no) were not. We added interaction terms between bike type and weather conditions, but none of the interaction terms had a credible effect on cycling. Thus, the relations between weather conditions and cycling were not moderated by bike type among parents of young children.

This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). To ensure cities’ livability, a significant modal shift from car use towards more sustainable modes of transportation, such as walking and cycling, is required. To establish such a modal shift, a better understanding is needed of the psychological components that affect people’s likelihood of shifting to active transport modes. To this end, a behavioural survey was conducted among more than 2000 respondents across nine European cities in four countries. Using factor and cluster analysis, two groups of respondents are identified that have common determinants of their variations in intentions to shift to active transport modes, i.e., a “pro-cycling” cluster (55.6% of the respondents) and a “non-pro-cycling” cluster (44.4%). The findings highlight the intrinsically different nature of walking and cycling as transport modes, underlining the importance of distinguishing walking and cycling policies. The main obstacle to cycle more frequently is perceived traffic safety. Therefore, the main priority should be the improvement of traffic safety. The most important obstacle hindering more frequent walking is time. Hence, reducing travel time, for instance, by creating shortcuts for pedestrians and denser and more diversified urban areas will be an important strategy. Future research could extend this research to cities in other countries and regions. By repeating the survey periodically, changes in people’s motivations and perceived barriers can be analysed over time. Behavioural Profiling of Cycling and Walking in Nine European Cities

In the last few years, there has been a strong increase in the interest in and usage of so-called "Personal e-Transporters" (PeTs), also referred to as micro-mobility devices. Empirical research on the usage of PeTs as a transport mode is virtually non-existent, especially within Europe. This paper aims to fill this gap by investigating people's motivations and barriers to the use of PeTs. To this end, a behavioural survey was conducted in nine European cities. A representative sample of approximately 250 respondents per city was collected, resulting in a dataset, after data cleaning, of 2159 observations. Generally, respondents' perceptions of PeTs are not (yet) very favourable. Respondents' perceptions related to cost and safety received the lowest scores. The results from the transtheoretical model of behavioural change show that a variety of factors influence the stage of behavioural change in which the respondents can be situated. These factors include cycling norms, current walking behaviour, walking attitudes, pro-environmental orientation, gender, PeTs possession, cycling obstacles and subscription to a bicycle sharing service. An important strength of this study lies in the international nature and the size of the data collection, ensuring the reliability and transferability of the results to other cities. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first large-scale survey to investigate people's travel behaviour related to the usage of PeTs and possibly the only large-scale investigation that took place before the deployment of shared e-scooters in many European cities. Furthermore, an explicit link is made with other modes of active transport (walking and cycling). This research was funded by the European Conference of Directors of Roads (CEDR) Transnational Road Research Programme-Call 2015: User Needs in a Multimodal Context. De Ceunynck, T (corresponding author), Vias Inst, BE-1130 Brussels, Belgium. hello@timdeceunynck.be; gertjan.wlilhuizen@swov.nl; aslak.fyhri@toi.no; regine.gerike@tu-dresden.de; dkoehler@polisnetwork.eu; alice.ciccone@toi.no; atze.dijkstra@swov.nl; emmanuelle.dupont@vias.be; mario.cools@uliege.be

Evensen, K.H.; Nordh, H.; Hassan, R.; Fyhri, A. Testing the Effect of Hedge Height on Perceived Safety—A Landscape Design Intervention. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5063. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095063 Access to safe, green urban environments is important for quality of life in cities. The objective of this study is to explore the impact of a safety-enhancing landscape design measure on visitors’ experiences in an urban park. Additionally, this paper combines the use of field and virtual reality (VR) experiments, contributing methodological insights into how to evaluate safety measures in green space management and research on perceived safety. In a field experiment (n = 266), we explored whether the height of a hedge along a pathway influenced perceived safety among users. The field study showed that cutting down the hedge improved the perceived prospect of the immediate surrounding areas for female users, which again made them feel safer in the park. We developed a VR experiment for an evening scenario in the same environment (n = 19) to supplement the field study and test the effect of the intervention further. The VR experiment also found a gender effect on perceived safety, with females reporting lower perceived safety, but no effect was shown for the height of the hedge. The results in this study show that environmental attributes such as perceived prospect and concealment should be considered in the design and management of urban green spaces. Additionally, this research demonstrates an approach to conducting field experiments to test the effects of actual design interventions and then further developing these experiments using VR technology. Further research on perceived safety in outdoor spaces is needed to make use of this combined method’s potential.

Cities and road authorities in many countries have started colouring their cycle lanes. Some road authorities choose red, some blue, and some green. The reasoning behind this choice is not clear, and it is uncertain whether some colours are superior to others. The current study aims to examine whether coloured cycle lanes are viewed more positively than uncoloured lanes, and whether one of the typically chosen colours is perceived as safer and more inviting to cyclists or more deterring to motorists. Participants were invited to respond to a web survey. Respondents (N= 560) were from the four largest cities in Norway, both genders (42.1% women), and of a wide age range (79.6% between 30 and 70). Depending on cycling frequency, respondents were categorised as either motorist (n= 354) or cyclist (n= 206). All respondents rated different cycle lanes (uncoloured, blue, green, and red) on different attributes. The uncoloured lane was consistently rated least positively, with the lowest scores on visibility, perceived safety for both motorists and cyclist and how inviting it seemed to cycle in the lane. It was also estimated to be the lane that would experience the greatest degree of violation from motorists, in terms of driving or stopping in the cycle lane. The green and red lanes were consistently rated more positively than the blue lane, but whether green or red was preferred depended on whether the respondent had lived a place with coloured cycle lanes. People familiar with coloured cycle lanes, which in Norway are red, rated the red lane more positively than the green lane, while the opposite was true for people who were not used to coloured cycle lanes. The difference in ratings between different colours were similar to, or greater than, the difference from uncoloured to coloured, which implies that it not only mattersthata lane is coloured, but alsowhich colourit has.

IntroductionCycling for transport could integrate physical activity (PA) into daily routines and potentially increase total PA levels. However, for parents with young children, most factors affecting transport mode choice tend to facilitate car use. Greater insight is necessary into reasons for (not) using sustainable transport modes in parents with young children. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the experiences, including motives, perceptions, attitudes, and norms, of parents of young children by using an e-bike, a longtail bike, and a traditional bike for everyday travel to the workplace, kindergarten, and the grocery store during the autumn, winter, and spring, in nine months.MethodsSemistructured focus group interviews were conducted with 18 parents of young children residing in southern Norway. Parents were recruited through Facebook announcements and direct contact with kindergartens, selected organisations, and companies in the Kristiansand municipality. Data were analysed by systematic text condensation by using NVivo V.11.ResultsParticipants' experiences were summarised by three main themes: 'cycling is cumbersome', 'cycling reflects the desirable me', and 'breaking the cycling code'. Time use, planning, logistics, wet and cold weather, long distances, and no cycling habit were frequently mentioned barriers, and the most notable facilitator was the children's attitude towards cycling. In general, children loved to cycle and preferred cycling to driving. Additionally, the freedom and independence of cycling were emphasised and valued.ConclusionIn challenging weather conditions, parents of young children may experience cycling as cumbersome but desirable, and bike access could increase the feasibility of daily cycling.

Previous research shows that e-bike owners use private cars less than other transport user groups, and also report to have changed from motorised to non-motorised transport. A challenge with many studies is that they are either retrospective or cross-sectional, thus giving little control over confounding factors. We followed up a short term trial where quite large mode change had been observed among participants. In the present study we conducted a before after-study with a customer group who bought an e-bike (N = 39) and a comparison group wanting to buy one (N = 142) using a survey with a travel diary to capture changes in travel behaviour. We also used a broader comparison group (N = 767) to test the robustness of the results from a policy perspective. The measurement period lasted up to six months. We found that people who purchased an e-bike increased their bicycle use from 2.1 to 9.2 km per day on average, representing a change in bike as share of all transport from 17 to 49 percent. The comparison group had negligible changes in cycling during the same time period, and the choice of comparison group had a very marginal effect on the results. The results show that the large change in cycling we previously found of a trial scheme with e-bikes is replicated with actual customers. The change in cycling share is somewhat larger than it was for the short-term users, showing that mode change from e-bikes is not just a novelty effect.

Relying on accident records as the main data source for studying cyclists’ safety has many drawbacks, such as high degree of under-reporting, the lack of accident details and particularly of information about the interaction processes that led to the accident. It is also an ethical problem as one has to wait for accidents to happen in order to make a statement about cyclists’ (un-)safety. In this perspective, the use of surrogate safety measures based on actual observations in traffic is very promising. In this study we used video data from three intersections in Norway that were all independently analysed using three methods: the Swedish traffic conflict technique (Swedish TCT), the Dutch conflict technique (DOCTOR) and the probabilistic surrogate measures of safety (PSMS) technique developed in Canada. The first two methods are based on manual detection and counting of critical events in traffic (traffic conflicts), while the third considers probabilities of multiple trajectories for each interaction and delivers a density map of potential collision points per site. Due to extensive use of microscopic data, PSMS technique relies heavily on automated tracking of the road users in video. Across the three sites, the methods show similarities or are at least “compatible” with the accident records. The two conflict techniques agree quite well for the number, type and location of conflicts, but some differences with no obvious explanation are also found. PSMS reports many more safety-relevant interactions including less severe events. The location of the potential collision points is compatible with what the conflict techniques suggest, but the possibly significant share of false alarms due to inaccurate trajectories extracted from video complicates the comparison. The tested techniques still require enhancement, with respect to better adjustment to analysis of the situations involving cyclists (and vulnerable road users in general) and further validation. However, we believe this to be a future direction for the road safety analysis as the number of accidents is constantly decreasing and the quality of accident data does not seem to improve. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

In Norway, as in many countries, there is a political goal to increase bicycle use. The electric bicycle (e-bike) is a promising tool for achieving this goal, given the hilliness of the country. However, little is yet known about the deterrents of cycling in Norway in general, and in particular how the purchase of an e-bike could be stimulated. In the current study, 5500 respondents from a convenience sample among car owners were asked about their perceptions of bicycling in general, and of e-bikes in particular as well as their willingness to pay for an e-bike. Randomly selected participants (N=66) were given access to an e-bike for a limited time (2 or 4 weeks). A second questionnaire captured the same perceptions and willingness to pay post-intervention. Results were compared with a control group (N=214). The results showed that those who cycle the least were most interested in buying an e-bike and that prior knowledge of the e-bike corresponded with a higher desire to buy one. Pro-environmental values did not predict interest in e-bikes, neither did norms and attitudes towards cycling. The willingness to pay for an e-bike increased after having experienced the benefits for those who used an e-bike compared to those who did not. Price reduction of the e-bike (e.g. VAT exemption), spread of knowledge among the wider population, and actions to offer an e-bike experience may therefore be effective strategies for further expansion of the e-bike in the transport system and thereby to increase bicycle use in Norway.

E-bikes are becoming increasingly popular, and are given an important role in the green mobility of the future. However, some have raised concerns that the increased speed and the increased weight of the e-bike can lead to more accidents among cyclists riding an e-bike, as compared to conventional bicycles. Furthermore, it has been suggested that e-bikes may appeal to new groups of cyclists with little cycling experience, which may further impede cyclist safety. Previous research has not provided a clear picture. We investigate these questions with data from three surveys carried out in Norway (N = 7752). A logistic regression analysis comparing conventional and electric bicycles, controlling for age gender and exposure, shows an overall risk increase (all accidents) for e-bike users. The results suggest that this increased risk derives from females having a higher accident risk on e-bikes. For men there is no risk difference between e-bikes and conventional bikes. Some, but not all, of this elevated risk can be attributed to being unfamiliar with the bicycle. E-bikes are not more likely to cause serious accidents than conventional bicycles. In-depth analysis of accident causation showed that there was no difference in the factors leading to accidents, except that there was a somewhat higher prevalence of accidents resulting from balance problems with e-bikes.

IntroductionWe aimed to investigate whether providing parents with children in kindergarten with access to different bicycle types could influence (i) travel behavior and cycling amount, and (ii) intrinsic motivation for cycling and psychological constructs related to car use.MethodsA randomized, controlled trial was conducted in Southern Norway from September 2017 to June 2018. In total 36 parents were recruited and randomly drawn into an intervention (n = 18) or control group (n = 18). The intervention group was in random order equipped with an e-bike with trailer (n = 6), a cargo (longtail) bike (n = 6) and a traditional bike with trailer (n = 6).ResultsAt follow-up, more participants from the intervention group (vs. the control group) were classified as cyclists to the workplace (n = 7 (38.9%) vs. n = 1 (5.9%), p = 0.04), but not to the kindergarten (n = 6 (33.3%) vs. n = 2 (11.8%), p = 0.23) or to the grocery store (n = 2 (11.1%) vs. n = 0 (0%), p = 0.49). A significant (p = ≤0.05) increase in cycling frequency (0.1 to 2.0 days/week) from baseline to follow-up was found in the intervention group for all destinations and seasons, except to the grocery store during winter (p = 0.16). A decrease in frequency of car driving (-0.2 to -1.7 days/week) was found to be apparent in terms of travelling to the workplace and the kindergarten for all seasons, yet not to the grocery store for any season (p = 0.15-0.49). The intervention group (vs. the control group) reported significantly higher "intrinsic regulation" for cycling (p = 0.01) at follow-up.ConclusionAccess to different bike types for parents with children attending kindergarten resulted in overall increased cycling, decreased car use and higher intrinsic motivation for cycling. E-bikes obtained the greatest cycling amount in total, with the smallest sample variability. Hence, providing parents with children in kindergarten with access to e-bikes might result in increased and sustained cycling, also during the winter season.

Police crash reports are often the main source for official data in many countries. However, with the exception of fatal crashes, crashes are often underreported in a biased manner. Consequently, the countermeasures adopted according to them may be inefficient. In the case of bicycle crashes, this bias is most acute and it probably varies across countries, with some of them being more prone to reporting accidents to police than others. Assessing if this bias occurs and the size of it can be of great importance for evaluating the risks associated with bicycling.This study utilized data collected in the COST TU1101 action "Towards safer bicycling through optimization of bicycle helmets and usage". The data came from an online survey that included questions related to bicyclists´ attitudes, behaviour, cycling habits, accidents, and patterns of use of helmets. The survey was filled by 8655 bicyclists from 30 different countries. After applying various exclusion factors, 7015 questionnaires filled by adult cyclists from 17 countries, each with at least 100 valid responses, remained in our sample.The results showed that across all countries, an average of only 10% of all crashes were reported to the police, with a wide range among countries: from a minimum of 0.0% (Israel) and 2.6% (Croatia) to a maximum of a 35.0% (Germany). Some factors associated with the reporting levels were type of crash, type of vehicle involved, and injury severity. No relation was found between the likelihood of reporting and the cyclist´s gender, age, educational level, marital status, being a parent, use of helmet, and type of bicycle.The significant under-reporting - including injury crashes that do not lead to hospitalization - justifies the use of self-report survey data for assessment of bicycling crash patterns as they relate to (1) crash risk issues such as location, infrastructure, cyclists´ characteristics, and use of helmet and (2) strategic approaches to bicycle crash prevention and injury reduction. Fil: Shinar, D.. Ben Gurion University of the Negev; Israel Fil: Valero-Mora, P.. Universidad de Valencia; España Fil: van Strijp-Houtenbos, M.. Institute For Road Safety Research, Netherlands; Países Bajos Fil: Haworth, N.. Queensland University Of Technology Qut; Australia Fil: Schramm, A.. Queensland University Of Technology Qut; Australia Fil: de Bruyne, G.. Universiteit Antwerp; Bélgica Fil: Cavallo, V.. Ifsttar - French Institute Of Science And Technology For Transport, Development And Networks; Fil: Chliaoutakis, J.. Technologiko Ekpaideutiko Idrima, Kritis; Fil: Dias, J.. Instituto Superior Tecnico; Portugal Fil: Ferraro, O.E.. Universita Degli Studi Di Pavia; Fil: Fyhri, A.. Transportokonomisk Institutt; Fil: Sajatovic, A. Hursa. University Of Zagreb, Faculty Of Textile Technology; Fil: Kuklane, K.. Lund University; Suecia Fil: Ledesma, Ruben Daniel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina Fil: Mascarell, O.. Ben Gurion University of the Negev; Israel Fil: Morandi, A.. Universita Degli Studi Di Pavia; Fil: Muser, M.. Working Group On Accident Mechanics; Fil: Otte, D.. Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (mhh); Fil: Papadakaki, M.. Technologiko Ekpaideutiko Idrima, Kritis; Fil: Sanmartín, J.. Universidad de Valencia; España Fil: Dulf, D.. Universitatea Babes-bolyai Din Cluj-napoca; Fil: Saplioglu, M.. Suleyman Demirel Universitesi; Fil: Tzamalouka, G.. Technologiko Ekpaideutiko Idrima, Kritis

Knowing the speed at which a cyclist travels is important in route and mode choice modelling. Empirical evidence suggests that it varies significantly in accordance with—among other things—infrastructure and topology. Despite this, in many network-based transport models cycling speed is constant, making travel distance the predominant variable of cycling behavior. Motivated by the lack of a comprehensive speed model in the literature, we present models for bicycles and e-bikes estimated based on a large-scale collection of GPS data in the Oslo area. In the models, speed on a network link is described as a function of several characteristics of the infrastructure and topology, and differs by user segments such as gender, trip purpose and type of bicycle. Model parameters are estimated with regression models using data from close to 50,000 single cycling trips. The data indicate that, on average, men cycle at a faster rate than women, although the difference is significantly less in the case of e-bikes. There is a non-linear and non-monotonic relationship between speed and gradient, with speed increasing up to a gradient of − 6%, but decreasing thereafter most likely due to safety concerns. Notable is the fact that cycling speed is significantly higher on routes where cyclists and pedestrians have their own dedicated space.

Background Cycling is considered to have a positive effect on public health through increased physical activity. In Norway, the e-bike is seen as a way of getting more people to cycle. However, the motorized assistance of an e-bike potentially eliminates any physical activity associated with its use. It is possible that the assumed health effect of increased cycling is “erased” through a reduction in other physical activities (a substitution effect). In this paper we study the public health effects of e-bikes using a combined cross-sectional and quasi-experimental design. First, we explore the existence of potentially hedonistic values in relation to interest in acquiring an e-bike and, second, we conduct an intervention study of physical activity pre- and post-purchase. Methods A sample of 340 people responded to a questionnaire before buying an e-bike and follow-up 4 weeks later, when 45 had bought one. A further 28 (mainly physically inactive) were recruited through a Norwegian NGO. For a comparison group, 1995 people were recruited through the Falck National Register of Bicycle Owners. All respondents were asked about the intensity of their cycling, (kilometres cycled in the previous week), walking and physical activity in addition to cycling as means of transport (days and hours). Results A structural equation model showed that hedonistic life values, and general physical activity, were predictive of interest in buying an e-bike. However people who already cycled a lot showed less interest. The trial showed that increased cycling – whether as a mean of transport or exercise –was related to higher levels of total physical activity in both groups compared to a comparison group (one-way ANOVA). Conclusions Our findings indicate that in the Norwegian cycle population there is no substantial substitution effect of physical activity with the introduction of an e-bike. The appeal of the e-bike is strongest among those with little existing interest in, or levels of, physical activity. The net effect of the e-bike therefore seems positive from a public health perspective. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-017-4817-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background The present study aims to increase bicycling and level of physical activity (PA), and thereby promote health in parents of toddlers, by giving access to different bicycle types. There is a need for greater understanding of e-bikes and their role in the transportation network, and further effects on PA levels and health. Moreover, longtail bikes could meet certain practical needs not fulfilled by e-bikes or traditional bikes, hence increased knowledge regarding their feasibility should be obtained. No previous studies have investigated whether providing an e-bike or a longtail bike over an extended period in a sample of parents of toddlers influence objectively assessed amount of bicycling and total PA level, transportation habits, cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition and blood pressure. Methods A randomized cross-over trial will be performed, entailing that participants in the intervention group (n = 18) complete the following intervention arms in random order: (i) three months access to an e-bicycle with trailer for child transportation (n = 6), (ii) three months access to a longtail bicycle (n = 6), and (iii) three months access to a regular bicycle with trailer (n = 6), in total nine months. Also, a control group (n = 18) maintaining usual transportation and PA habits will be included. A convenience sample consisting of 36 parents of toddlers residing in Kristiansand municipality, Southern Norway, will be recruited. Total amount of bicycling (distance and time), total level of PA, and transportation habits will be measured at baseline and in connection to each intervention arm. Cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition and blood pressure will be measured at baseline and post-intervention. Main outcome will be bicycling distance and time spent cycling. Discussion New knowledge relevant for the timely issues of public health and environmental sustainability will be provided among parents of toddlers, representing a target group of greatest importance. There is a call for research on the influence of e-bikes and longtail bikes on travel behavior and PA levels, and whether voluntary cycling could improve health. If the present study reveals promising results, it should be replicated in larger and more representative samples. Eventually, inclusion in national public health policies should be considered. Trial registration ID NCT03131518 , made public 26.04.2017.

Many governments attempt to improve cycling safety to reduce the number of bicycle crashes and encourage cycling. The Netherlands is a world leader in bicycle use and safety. This paper explores how the Netherlands achieved an 80% reduction in the number of cyclists killed (predominantly bicycle–motor vehicle crashes) per billion bicycle kilometres over a thirty year period. Factors found to contribute to this improvement include the establishment of a road hierarchy with large traffic-calmed areas where through traffic is kept out. A heavily used freeway network shifts motor vehicles from streets with high cycling levels. This reduces exposure to high-speed motor vehicles. Separated bicycle paths and intersection treatments decrease the likelihood of bicycle–motor vehicle crashes. The high amount of bicycle use increases safety as a higher bicycle modal share corresponds with a lower share of driving and greater awareness of cyclists among drivers. Low cycling speed was also found to contribute to the high level of cycling safety in the Netherlands. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd

Within research on individual variations in risk perception, personality has been suggested as one important factor. In the present study, personality traits (44 items from the Big Five inventory) were investigated in relation to risk perception in transport and transport behavioural adaptations. In a sample of 312 participants, we found that the personality trait 'emotional stability versus neuroticism' was negatively correlated with risk perception (operationalised as "thinking about the possibility") of an accident (-0.38) and an unpleasant incident, such as crime, violence, robbery (-0.25). 'Agreeableness' was also negatively related to risk perception, however first and foremost in relation to perceived risk for unpleasant incidents on transport modes in which one interacts with other people (0.25). Moreover, regression analyses showed that 'emotional stability' was a significant predictor of behavioural adaptations on bus. Regression analyses explained between 17 and 26 percent of variance in behavioural adaptations. The results show that different groups of people vary systematically in their perception of risk in transport. Furthermore, these differences are manifest as a difference in risk-preventive behaviour at a strategic level, i.e. as decisions about avoiding risky situations.

In many European countries, it is a political goal that future growth in local travel should be absorbed by sustainable transport modes. Concerns that increased walking and cycling produce more accidents have been countered by the “safety in numbers” (SiN) argument. According to SiN, the more walkers/cyclists there are in a population, the lower their risk. SiN has been demonstrated in cross sectional and longitudinal studies, but the mechanisms behind the effect have yet to be proven. Previous studies have mostly relied on register data. The current study, carried out in 2013 and 2014 tests the existence of this effect in a more controlled manner. This is achieved through the use of three data sets: (1) roadside survey data with cyclists, pedestrians and car drivers from Oslo carried out at three time points in the cycling season (2) a panel study covering the same time period, and (3) video observations at four different locations in Oslo. By exploiting the natural seasonal variation in cycling frequency, and by using a repeated measures design we can further control for other factors suggested to lie behind the SiN mechanism, such as differences in infrastructure and traffic culture. The results suggest that bicyclists experience a short term Safety in Numbers effect through the season. Each individual cyclist experiences fewer occasions of being overlooked by cars and fewer safety critical situations (near-misses). Video observation data confirm this pattern. However, the SiN effect seems to be countered by another mechanism taking place at the same time: the influx of inexperienced and risk-taking cyclists through the season. Thus car drivers and pedestrians also report to find themselves being surprised by cyclists in traffic late in the season.

A road sign with the text «Share the road» and a picture of a smiling cyclist and a passing car was evaluated in a before–after study with surveys among cyclists and car drivers. The sign was set up at two sites on a test road near Oslo in summer 2014. A similar road was used as a comparison. About two thirds of the participants on the test road had noticed the sign. The majority liked it and agreed with its message. Cyclists have more often noticed the sign than car drivers have and they were somewhat more positive towards the sign. Effects on self-reported behavior and the perceived behavior of others were evaluated by comparing changes from the before- to the after-period between test and comparison road. Self-reported behavior of both cyclists and car drivers has improved on the test road after the sign was set up, especially in overtaking situations, and these results are in accordance with how cyclists and car drivers perceived each other’s behavior. The general perception of other road users has improved as well. The results are most likely representative of similar roads with a large proportion of car traffic that is related to recreation and a relatively low level of conflict.

Green urban parks can offer city dwellers a place to withdraw from traffic noise. However, the significance of the sonic environment for suitability for recreational activities and how to measure this in an appropriate manner, has not been given much research attention. The aim of the study was to investigate the relation between calculated estimates of noise and the soundscape disclosing its suitability for recreation, and to compare three methods of measuring soundscape in an urban park designated as a quiet zone in Oslo. A soundwalk (N = 14) and an on-site survey (N = 99) were conducted in three different noise zones inside the park, and an off-site survey was conducted outside the park (N = 99). The study indicated that the soundwalk method was better at discriminating between the calculated high, medium and low noise zones in terms of the effect on perceived annoyance of traffic noise and suitability for recreational activities and potential for restoration. People outside the park expected the perceived annoyance of the traffic noise inside the park to be higher, and the potential for stress recovery to be lower than those asked in the lowest noise zone inside the park. The study points at the importance of protecting against road traffic noise in urban green areas to facilitate for recreational activities, and brings up pertinent methodological issues for the research on soundscape.

Several studies have shown that bicycle helmets have the potential of reducing injuries from accidents. Yet, no studies have found good evidence of an injury reducing effect in countries that have introduced bicycle helmet legislation. Two of the most promising explanations for why helmet laws do not work as intended are risk compensation and shifts in the cycle population as a response to the law. The present article investigates whether the lack of effect of helmet wearing laws is due to risk compensation mechanisms or population shifts (i.e. discouraging cyclists with the lowest accident risk, and thereby increasing the overall average risk per cyclist). A random sample of 1504 bicycle owners in Norway responded to a questionnaire on among other things helmet use, bicycle equipment use, accident involvement, cycling behaviour and risk perception. Data were analysed by using structural equation model (SEM). The results show that the cyclist population in Norway can be divided into two sub-populations: one speed-happy group that cycle fast and have lots of cycle equipment including helmets, and one traditional kind of cyclist without much equipment, cycling slowly. With all the limitations that have to be placed on a cross sectional study such as this, the results indicate that at least part of the reason why helmet laws do not appear to be beneficial is that they disproportionately discourage the safest cyclists.

In many countries a decline in children's active and independent mobility, like walking and cycling is registered. In this paper the development of children's mobility in Denmark, Finland, Great Britain and Norway is compared to examine differences and similarities in these countries. Accessible data are used, which implies that not all of them are directly comparable, but they are employed as indicators of development. The trends are the same in these four countries, an increase in car use and decrease in bicycling and walking. Distance to school has increased, both as a result of bigger units and more children in private schools. Traffic is an important reason for taking children to school by car, but convenience for the parents is also part of it. Organized leisure activities has also contributed to less walking and cycling, in addition to more time pressure in families, increased access to car(s) and easier access to parents as a 'transport service' by the help of the mobile phone. The measures that different countries use in trying to meet the challenges of children's mobility tend to focus on the school trip and most often on traffic safety, both at national and local levels.

This study investigated risk compensation by cyclists in response to bicycle helmet wearing by observing changes in cycling behavior, reported experience of risk, and a possible objective measure of experienced risk. The suitability of heart rate variability (HRV) as an objective measure of experienced risk was assessed beforehand by recording HRV measures in nine participants watching a thriller film. We observed a significant decrease in HRV in line with expected increases in psychological challenge presented by the film. HRV was then used along with cycling pace and self-reported risk in a field experiment in which 35 cyclist volunteers cycled 0.4 km downhill, once with and once without a helmet. Routine helmet users reported higher experienced risk and cycled slower when they did not wear their helmet in the experiment than when they did wear their helmet, although there was no corresponding change in HRV. For cyclists not accustomed to helmets, there were no changes in speed, perceived risk, or any other measures when cycling with versus without a helmet. The findings are consistent with the notion that those who use helmets routinely perceive reduced risk when wearing a helmet, and compensate by cycling faster. They thus give some support to those urging caution in the use of helmet laws.

Several adverse effects have been associated with exposure to traffic noise. Studies supporting a noise-stress-health model have suggested links between noise level and increased noradrenalin concentrations in urine, hypertension and myocardial infarction. Among the more commonly documented effects, sleep disturbances have been regarded as being the most serious. Both noise annoyance and sleep disturbance have been proposed as important mediators of the impact of noise on health. The present paper investigates the relationships among long-term noise exposure, annoyance, sleeping problems and subjective health complaints by the use of a structural equation model. Further, it aims at giving insight into how noise sensitivity is related to sleep disturbances from road traffic noise. Finally, it examines whether any effect of noise exposure or response to noise can be detected on prevalence of cardiovascular problems, when information on sleep disturbances is included in a model. Data from a questionnaire survey conducted among a population sample in Oslo (N=2786) are combined with nighttime noise levels calculated from outside each respondents dwelling, at the bedroom façade. The results of the analysis showed significant relationships between noise annoyance at night and sleeping problems. The model also showed strong links among pseudoneurological complaints, annoyance and sleeping problems, thus pointing to the importance of including information on psychosomatic disorders and mild psychological problems in future studies looking at potential health effects of noise. The analysis showed no relationship between neither noise exposure nor response to noise and cardiovascular problems.

Increased use of the car in the everyday transport of children can lead to environmental problems, and cause increased obesity and decreased independence among children. Using a structural equation model we investigate the influence of a range of background variables on mode choice for Norwegian children's transport to school or leisure activities. Distance to school and children's age were the most influential variables on children's independent mobility, measured as an index. Objective descriptors of the traffic environment only explain independent mobility via parents' safety experience.

European cultural landscapes have been subject to change since the middle of the twentieth century, and among the most significant alterations are general re-growth, reforestation, and overgrowth. Such changes might lead to landscape loss for locals and deterioration of vistas for sightseeing holidaymakers. This article responds to a lack of academic research on landscape perceptions among tourists. The main objective is to explore international tourists’ landscape perceptions in a coastal area in northern Scandinavia, focusing on three different concepts thought to be important for tourists’ landscape preferences: typicality, vegetation lushness, and degree of human influence. A combination of free and directed sorting procedures was employed. Quantitative and categorical data derived from the multiple sorting methods were subjected to multidimensional scaling analysis. The results indicate that foreign tourists might have an understanding of re-growth in the case area. Preference ratings gave mixed results in relation to vegetation and human influence as important features for landscape preferences, as found in previous studies. The findings emphasise the need for taking into consideration typicality of setting in future landscape research.

Unlike school trips, the leisure activities of children and transport to these activities have received relatively little attention. Organized activities have increased and the immediate neighbourhood is not always the most appropriate or desirable area to play in or carry out various leisure activities. This paper presents findings from a nationwide survey in Norway that focus on children’s mobility. The results suggesting that a large proportion of children 6–12 years participate in organized leisure activities – sporting pursuits and music being the most popular and car is the main transport mode to these activities. The car share is higher than for school trips. The analysis indicates that children, particularly in these age groups, have parents with at least one car and who use the car for most purposes. Families who live in the larger cities have less access to a car than families living in other places, and this is reflected in the transport mode when children are escorted to leisure activities. Although distance to activities and children’s age are important for car-use, parents travel habits also have an impact on mode choice for these purposes.

The proposed effect of road traffic noise on hypertension and ischemic heart disease finds mixed empirical support. One problem with many studies is that the directions of the causal relationships are not identified. This is often the case when cross-sectional data and multivariate regression models are utilised. The aim of the study was to explore the relationship between road traffic noise and health. More specifically the relationships between noise complaints, noise sensitivity and subjectively reported hypertension and heart problems were investigated. 1842 respondents in Oslo, Norway were interviewed about their experience of the local environment and their subjective health complaints. The interviews were conducted as part of two surveys. Individual measures of air pollution (NO2) and noise (Lden) were calculated. The data were analysed using Structural Equation Models. Only sensitivity to noise is related to hypertension and chest pain. No relationships between noise exposure and health complaints were identified. Rather than noise being the causal agent leading to health problems, the results suggest that the noise–health relationships in these studies may be spurious. It is conceivable that individual vulnerability is reflected both in ill health and in being sensitive to noise. The benefit of including more contextual variables in a model of noise–health relationships is supported. Keywords: Structural models, Noise exposure, Causality, Epidemiology, Subjective health complaints

Studies of human reactions to noise have often also studied possible impacts of nonacoustic variables such as income, education and occupational status. While such social status variables have been shown to modify health outcomes they do not have any important effect in noise-annoyance studies. However, the socio-acoustic research analyses usually employ regression models where the noise each person is exposed to is regarded as exogenous, i.e given. This precludes the analysis of indirect effects, such as wealthy people buying themselves out of noisy neighbourhoods. To explore this type of indirect effects, the relationship between noise exposure, income and noise annoyance is investigated a step further in this paper. Structural equation models incorporating both direct and indirect pathways have been estimated using data from six socio-acoustic surveys combining individual noise exposure measures with questions on noise perception and background characteristics. The hypothesis that high-income groups buy themselves free from noise is only partly confirmed. It seems to hold true for residents of a small-to-medium size city, but not for residents of a larger city. With respect to income as a possible modifier of annoyance, the previous results that no such moderating effects can be found are confirmed.

Exposure–effect relationships between the level of road traffic noise at the most exposed side of a dwelling's facade and the residents' reactions to road traffic noise have been estimated. The relationships are based on five Norwegian socio-acoustic studies featuring 18 study areas from two cities and a total of near 4000 respondents. The survey questionnaires distinguish between noise annoyance experienced right outside the apartment and when indoors. Exposure–effect relationships for all degrees of annoyance are estimated simultaneously from ordinal logit models. These predict road traffic noise annoyance when right outside the apartment and when indoors, respectively, as a function of the road traffic noise level outside the most exposed facade. Separate analyses indicate that Norwegians react stronger to road traffic noise than results from a recent compilation of socio-acoustic surveys would lead one to believe. People having inferior single glazing windows report higher indoor annoyance.