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Funding Information: This work was funded by and carried out in the context of the European Union’s Horizon 2020 (H2020) research and innovation program by the BREEDCAFS (Breeding Coffee for Agroforestry Systems, www.breedcafs.eu ) project (2017–2021) under the grant agreement No. 727934. Portuguese national funding from the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT), through the research units UIDB/00239/2020 (CEF) and UIDP/04035/2020 (GeoBioTec) are also acknowledged. Thuan Sarzynski benefits from a thesis scholarship jointly financed by the CIRAD and ECOM trading. Publisher Copyright: © 2022, The Author(s). The coffee research community has maintained a long ongoing debate regarding the implications of shade trees in coffee production. Historically, there has been contrasting results and opinions on this matter, thus recommendations for the use of shade (namely in coffee agroforestry systems) are often deemed controversial, particularly due to potential yield declines and farmers’ income. This study is one of the first demonstrating how several Coffea arabica cultivars respond differently to shade with respect to yield. By standardising more than 200 coffee yield data from various in-field trials, we assembled the so-called “Ristretto” data pool, a one of a kind, open-source dataset, consolidating decades of coffee yield data under shaded systems. With this standardised dataset, our meta-analysis demonstrated significant genotypic heterogeneity in response to shade, showing neutral, inverted U-shaped and decreasing trends between yield and shade cover amongst 18 different cultivars. These findings encourage the examination of C. arabica at the cultivar level when assessing suitability for agroforestry systems. Comparison of productivity is also encouraged across a range of low to moderate shade levels (10–40%), in order to help elucidate potential unknown optimal shade levels for coffee production. publishersversion published

Geographical indication (GI) identifies goods originating from a particular territory, where certain qualities and reputation of the product are essentially attributed to that origin. GIs connote value addition hence a tool for livelihood improvement among producers of local products. This is especially the case for honey, which is mainly produced rural areas in Ghana, where there are few other income sources. However, GIs are unknown in the country. This paper discusses various elements and storylines that commonly characterize registered GI products, focusing on GI honeys registered within the EU and the single GI honey registered in Africa, the Oku white Honey in Cameroon. The study is based on a literature review of GI honey records and the EU DOOR database, general literature, and complemented with fieldwork. A number of elements were identified to characterize GI honeys and can be grouped into three elements: indicative, essential, and supportive. The three groups of elements are important for the identification, development, and promotion of GIs in Ghana. Analyzing potential GI honey case within the three groups of elements shows Ghana has a GI legislation but has to develop the capacity for relevant state institutions necessary for GI building.

Community-based initiatives with a double objective of improving rural livelihoods and conserving forest resources face the challenge of balancing the two objectives without creating trade-offs. Our study investigates the socio-economic performance of a community-based initiative that uses cooperative-driven organic certification of honey producers in Mwingi, Eastern Kenya, to improve livelihoods and acacia woodland management. Data were collected through a household survey of 303 beekeepers from 38 organic certified and 16 non-certified beekeeper groups. More data were collected using key informant interviews, informal conversations, participant observation, participatory rural appraisal, internal document reviews and secondary sources. The survey included questions regarding beekeepers' livelihood activities, organisation involvement, quantity of honey produced and sold, net honey income and welfare perceptions after certification (2015) and before certification (2008), retrospectively. The results showed minimal to no significant impacts of certification on households' incomes, honey quantity or sales prices, as the general development, though positive, followed that of the non-certified households. The lack of impacts stemmed from failure to monitor and technical backstopping of certified beekeepers, a poor cooperative management and mistrust among the members and Mwingi organic cooperative board. The board mainly bought honey from a non-certified middleman thereby undermining the Mwingi organic cooperative's values as well as their own potential niche market. On a positive note, the cooperative's honey market place, receiving customers from afar, has the potential to support the development of a niche organic market outlet. However, this requires reconnection of the cooperative to its members, trust rebuilding and transparent management of the cooperative. The study exemplifies a case of community-based livelihoods-conservation initiative which did not take local community capacity development and more general long-term project sustainability into consideration.

A high proportion of commodities in African countries face limitations in penetrating international markets, mainly because of low quality and high transaction costs (TCs) of marketing. This study responds to two research questions. One, does honey from the Uyui district in Tanzania has the potential for geographical indication (GI) labelling, potentially enhancing quality? Two, can GI labelling reduce TCs and improve market access? 83 beekeepers, 50 honey traders and 50 consumers were selected randomly for interviews in Uyui District and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Both primary and secondary data were collected on, cultural and historical identity, the local ecosystem, marketing and value addition technologies. The policy and legal framework for GI certification were also reviewed. Seven honey samples from Uyui District were tested for physicochemical characteristics and compared with the international standards. Since there is no GI labelled honey in Tanzania currently, a hypothetical case was crea...

Many tropical countries have potential for adding market value to unique forest origin products similarly to how EU gain billions of Euro's annually from registering agricultural origin products, with Protected Denomination of Origin or Protected Geographical Indication. Following analysis of the renaissance for the global Geographical Indication (GI) regime, this article provides case-studies from Kenya – on Mwingi Honey, Kakamega Silk and institutional conditions under which producers may incorporate territory specific cultural, environmental, and social qualities of their unique products. We investigate prospects for Kenyan producers to create and capture additional monetary value for their forest related origin products, allowing smallholders to build livelihood, while stewarding natural environments. The origin products are investigated for their potential for protection with a GI, within five different dimensions of and links with the social and natural world. Our study shows that Mwingi Honey and Kakamega Silk have potential for registration under a GI regime based mainly on close links between local environment, flora and product quality, and product specificity. The institutional environment presents major challenges for the development of GI products and markets, exemplified by the Kenyan GI bill which is not yet enacted after almost a decade in the making.

While an increasing number of large food companies commit themselves to source only certified cocoa, research on the impacts of certification on cocoa farmers is falling behind. We investigate how Rainforest Alliance (RA) certification of small-scale cocoa farmers in Ghana has affected both the financial and the natural capitals of the farmers. Across two villages, certified farmers were compared to conventional farmers, using both qualitative and quantitative data collected through farmer and key informant interviews and participatory rural appraisals. A combination of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework and the Input-Output-Outcome-Impact Framework was used for the analysis. Results indicate that the RA certification scheme has a positive influence on the certified farmers in terms of cocoa production, yield, income and farmers’ perception of changes in their natural and financial capitals. The positive influence is a result of inputs from the RA certification, including financial support, information and knowledge, technical assistance, and increased access to farm inputs and credit. However, these positive impacts are conditioned by the presence of active farmer organizations and access to agricultural inputs and credit through associations and government institutions, and may be undermined by certified farmers who sell their produce outside the premium value chain. While an increasing number of large food companies commit themselves to source only certified cocoa, research on the impacts of certification on cocoa farmers is falling behind. We investigate how Rainforest Alliance (RA) certification of small-scale cocoa farmers in Ghana has affected both the financial and the natural capitals of the farmers. Across two villages, certified farmers were compared to conventional farmers, using both qualitative and quantitative data collected through farmer and key informant interviews and participatory rural appraisals. A combination of the Sustainable Livelihood Framework and the Input-Output-Outcome-Impact Framework was used for the analysis. Results indicate that the RA certification scheme has a positive influence on the certified farmers in terms of cocoa production, yield, income and farmers’ perception of changes in their natural and financial capitals. The positive influence is a result of inputs from the RA certification, including financial support, information and knowledge, technical assistance, and increased access to farm inputs and credit. However, these positive impacts are conditioned by the presence of active farmer organizations and access to agricultural inputs and credit through associations and government institutions, and may be undermined by certified farmers who sell their produce outside the premium value chain.

Acacia woodlands dominate arid and semi-arid areas across the world and are an important source of livelihood supporting activities. This is also the case in Kenya, where the Acacia woodlands are under pressure, partly due to the extractive activities that generate household income, such as collection of fuelwood, building poles, charcoal burning and livestock fodder. There is an apparent dilemma between the extractive and non-extractive use of the Acacia woodlands, and a need to develop income generating activities that also conserve and support the natural basis. Honey production is a widespread activity in Kenyan Acacia woodland areas, and thus a potential candidate for the task, but information on pollination of wild plants in the tropics in relation to livelihood sustenance and natural resource conservation is scarce. Therefore, this studyinvestigates to what extent honey bees (Apis mellifera) visit and pollinate Acacia brevispica in Kitui County, Kenya. The study also assesses the occurrence of Acacia pollen types in honeys produced within the study area. The results show that honey bees were the most numerous flower visitor and pollinator of A. brevispica, while Acacia pollen was the predominant pollen type in the sampled honeys. This shows that honey bees provide pollination services to A. brevispica for the return of pollen and nectar for the production of honey, which is a source of income for local households. Understanding the link between pollination of A. brevispica and honey production can help to facilitate conservation efforts for the benefit of the woodlands and its inherent biodiversity as well as for local livelihoods. Acacia woodlands dominate arid and semi-arid areas across the world and are an important source of livelihood supporting activities. This is also the case in Kenya, where the Acacia woodlands are under pressure, partly due to the extractive activities that generate household income, such as collection of fuelwood, building poles, charcoal burning and livestock fodder. There is an apparent dilemma between the extractive and non-extractive use of the Acacia woodlands, and a need to develop income generating activities that also conserve and support the natural basis. Honey production is a widespread activity in Kenyan Acacia woodland areas, and thus a potential candidate for the task, but information on pollination of wild plants in the tropics in relation to livelihood sustenance and natural resource conservation is scarce. Therefore, this studyinvestigates to what extent honey bees (Apis mellifera) visit and pollinate Acacia brevispica in Kitui County, Kenya. The study also assesses the occurrence of Acacia pollen types in honeys produced within the study area. The results show that honey bees were the most numerous flower visitor and pollinator of A. brevispica, while Acacia pollen was the predominant pollen type in the sampled honeys. This shows that honey bees provide pollination services to A. brevispica for the return of pollen and nectar for the production of honey, which is a source of income for local households. Understanding the link between pollination of A. brevispica and honey production can help to facilitate conservation efforts for the benefit of the woodlands and its inherent biodiversity as well as for local livelihoods.

Payments for environmental services (PES) are often promoted on the basis of a purported win–win scenario in terms of accomplishing dual environmental and social policy objectives. Yet, it has been observed that PES programs tend to exclude small land-owners due to relatively high and largely scale-independent transaction costs. This study seeks to shed light on the role of local intermediaries in PES programs and how they may bring the reality of PES closer to the win–win scenario. This is done through an investigation of three intermediaries in the Costa Rican PES program; an NGO, a producer cooperative, and a county agricultural center. Based on interviews, household surveys, and reviews of PES contracts, the study examines differences in the inclusion of small-holders in the PES program between the three organizations and focuses on understanding the underlying reasons for any observed differences. The results reveal that the cooperative and the agricultural center are more inclusive of small-holders than the NGO. The ability to include small-holders is influenced by the organizations’ level of running operational costs, but also by their pre-existing portfolio of activities and relationships with landowners, as well as the land development history of the local area. Finally, the role of intermediaries is highly influenced by the framing of their working conditions by the PES program. This study thus shows the importance of considering the factors that condition the role of intermediaries in securing inclusive and low-cost provision of ES.

Systematic comparisons of human dependence on forests and environmental resources have been challenging, as a result of heterogeneous methodologies. Specialized Forestry Modules have been developed, with the goal of filling current information gaps concerning the economic importance of forest and wild products in household welfare and rural livelihoods. Results from a pilot assessment of the Forestry Modules in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, are presented, showing that the Forestry Modules perform well in extracting the expected information: mean per capita forest and wild product income shifts according to the geographical “forest gradient”. Significantly, in the forest-rich upstream village, mean forest and wild product income and mean forest-related wage and business incomes exceeds current mean agricultural income statistics for West Kalimantan and mean non-agricultural rural household incomes in the lowest bracket. Consumption of forest products and importance as a coping strategy was higher in the most upstream village, where sale of forest products in times of shock was more marked in the most downstream village (where forest coping strategies were also least important). The Forestry Modules' detailed and systematic approach can help ensure that contributions of forest and wild products are not underestimated in national figures.

Trees in agricultural landscapes are important for the provision of environmental services. This study assesses the loss of shade coffee during a 9 year period in a biological corridor in Costa Rica, and investigates the mediating factors of land use change. Following a conceptual framework that presents how household and farm characteristics mediate the interplay between underlying and proximate causes of land use change, the effect of the mediating factors is determined by applying an ordered probit model to household and land use data for 2000 and 2009 from 217 former and present coffee farmers. Additional 224 telephone interviews supplement the data on land use change. Results show a 50% reduction in the coffee area and a corresponding loss of trees. Family labor, age of household head, coffee prices, and use of shade tree products significantly reduce the probability of converting the coffee field, while the number of family members engaged in other agriculture and non-farm work increases the probability. A stronger tie to coffee farming is found to abate the influence of underlying drivers, whereas the younger generation downgrades the labor intensive coffee farming. Payments for environmental services are proposed as a policy instrument that may influence land use.

Production of coffee, especially by small holders, is often associated with various forms of shade management. To analyse the effects of shade on physical coffee quality and on sensorial cup quality of Coffea arabica L. cv. Caturra KMC, a study was carried out with 94 plots on 16 farms in two municipalities, Timana and Oporapa, located at elevations from 1272 to 1730 masl. in Huila, Colombia. The study was designed with emphasis on shade cover variation within each of the two study areas, while minimizing the variability of environment, agronomic management other than shade, and post-harvest processing. 46 samples of shade coffee and 46 samples of sun coffee were evaluated for physical and sensorial attributes using three professional coffee cuppers (assessors). A principal component analysis including all quality and environmental variables showed that sensory attributes were influenced negatively by shade, and that physical attributes were influenced positively by altitude. A mixed linear model, with coffee cupper and farm as random variables, revealed different shade effects on coffee quality in the two areas. In Oporapa, situated at high altitudes, shade had a negative effect on fragrance, acidity, body, sweetness and preference of the beverage, while no effect was found on the physical quality. In Timana, situated at lower altitudes, shade did not have a significant effect on sensorial attributes, but significantly reduced the number of small beans. At high altitudes with low temperatures and no nutrient or water deficits, shade trees may thus have a partly adverse effect on C. arabica cv. Caturra resulting in reduced sensory quality. The occurrence of berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) was lower at high altitudes and higher under shade. Future studies on shade and coffee quality should focus on the interaction between physical and chemical characteristics of beans.

Purpose: This article explores how voluntary certifications influence the way cooperatives provide advisory services to their members and the influence of these services on agricultural practices. Design/Methodology/Approach: Case studies were conducted in four representative Costa Rican cooperatives interviewing twenty interviewed cooperative administrators and members to determine changes in advisory services and farming practices over the past twenty years and factors which influenced those changes. Findings: Certifications induce cooperatives to offer new services to support farmers. Cooperatives form collaborations with new stakeholders or reconfigure existing collaborations to provide advisory services to their members. These services have helped to shape farmers' attitudes about sustainable farming practices, though farm-level changes may be small. The main change at the cooperative level is adding new topics for group training, and certification issues are directly linked with practices such as maintaining a farm record book or wearing a mask when applying pesticides. Practices which compete with productivity are unlikely to change. Practical Implications: The results are useful to improve the advisory services provided by cooperatives by better identifying the key issues to be addressed to fulfill the certifications' requirements. Theoretical implications: Cooperatives are a relevant player to induce more sustainable practices, by providing or coordinating advisory services, but their efforts cannot be seen disconnected from a broader institutional environment. Originality/Value: We demonstrate that certifications change the intensity and scope of advisory services and induce cooperatives to engage with a more diverse network of stakeholders.

Dans les systèmes agroforestiers de café, les arbres d'ombrage peuvent fournir aux producteurs de café des services éco-systémiques qui permettent d’améliorer non seulement la production de café mais aussi leur sécurité alimentaire et leur résilience économique. Afin d'optimiser la composition des arbres d'ombrage, l'hétérogénéité des systèmes de production de café à petite échelle et la diversité des besoins et contraintes des producteurs doivent être reconnues. Ainsi, cette étude se base sur les connaissances écologiques locales des agriculteurs pour optimiser les recommandations d'arbres d'ombrage dans les systèmes agroforestiers de café à petite échelle dans le département de Matagalpa, au Nicaragua. Afin de mieux comprendre le contexte local et les connaissances locales des agriculteurs, des enquêtes, des inventaires et 65 exercices de classement des arbres ont été menés dans trois villages. Les résultats confirment que les petits exploitants de café ont adopté et conservé une grande diversité d'arbres d'ombrage, avec 106 espèces répertoriées. Les producteurs interrogés ont identifié 13 services éco-systémiques et 7 impacts négatifs liés aux arbres d'ombrage. Les résultats montrent aussi que les femmes ont une meilleure connaissance des arbres fruitiers que des autres arbres d’ombrage et ont des priorités différentes en matière de service éco-systémiques. Les agriculteurs étaient disposés à diversifier d’avantage leurs systèmes pour obtenir des services éco-systémiques spécifiques, comme l’obtention de produit pour leur propre consommation ou l'amélioration de la fertilité des sols. Cependant, un quart des agriculteurs interrogés souhaitent réduire ou abandonner la production de café en raison des coûts d'entretien élevés et de la faible rentabilité, ce qui représente une menace pour la diversité des arbres dans le paysage.; In agroforestry systems, shade trees can provide coffee farmers with a range of ecosystem services which can enhance agricultural production and increase households’ food security and economic resilience against price volatility and extreme climatic events. In order to optimize the composition of shade tree species in the coffee agroforestry systems, the heterogeneity of small-scale coffee production systems and the diversity of their needs and constraints need to be acknowledged. This study mobilizes farmers’ local ecological knowledge of shade tree species and the ecosystem services they provide to improve recommendations of shade trees in small-scale coffee agroforestry systems in Matagalpa, Nicaragua. Taking a mixed-method approach, household surveys, tree inventories and 65 tree ranking exercises were conducted across three villages in order to grasp the local context and farmers’ local knowledge. The results confirm that coffee smallholders have adopted and retained a high diversity of shade trees in their systems, with 106 species listed, and display a wide knowledge of individual species. Respondents identified 13 ecosystem services and 7 disservices from shade trees. Gendered differences appear in both individual species knowledge and ecosystem services preferences, indicating that local initiatives should focus on including both genders. Farmers were willing to further increase the diversity of their systems to obtain specific ecosystem services, e.g., provision of food, soil fertility enhancement. However, one quarter of the surveyed farmers wish to reduce or abandon coffee production due to high maintenance costs and low profitability, representing a threat against tree diversity in the landscape. Local initiatives should facilitate access to seedlings and market opportunities in order to help farmers to improve and diversify their agroforestry income sources.