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Based on the first molecular phylogenetic analyses of samples from northeast India, specimens referred to Rhabdops from this region are more closely related to the southeast and east Asian natricine genera Opisthotropis Günther, 1872 and Sinonatrix Rossman & Eberle, 1977 (as well as to New World and western Palearctic natricines) than to peninsular Indian (true) Rhabdops. Morphologically, these northeast Indian populations differ from other natricines by having a single (‘fused’ or unpaired) internasal shield and a single prefrontal shield. Given the morphological and phylogenetic distinctiveness of these northeast Indian populations, we refer them to a new genus, Smithophis gen. nov., and transfer Rhabdops bicolor (Blyth, 1854) to Smithophis bicolor comb. nov. Based on morphological and molecular variation within our northeast Indian sample, we additionally describe Smithophis atemporalis sp. nov. from the state of Mizoram.

The Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) shares a distribution range with many other &lsquo, phenotypically-similar&rsquo, kraits across the Indian subcontinent. Despite several reports of fatal envenomings by other Bungarus species, commercial Indian antivenoms are only manufactured against B. caeruleus. It is, therefore, imperative to understand the distribution of genetically distinct lineages of kraits, the compositional differences in their venoms, and the consequent impact of venom variation on the (pre)clinical effectiveness of antivenom therapy. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted phylogenetic and comparative venomics investigations of kraits in Southern and Western India. Phylogenetic reconstructions using mitochondrial markers revealed a new species of krait, Romulus&rsquo, krait (Bungarus romulusi sp. nov.), in Southern India. Additionally, we found that kraits with 17 mid-body dorsal scale rows in Western India do not represent a subspecies of the Sind Krait (B. sindanus walli) as previously believed, but are genetically very similar to B. sindanus in Pakistan. Furthermore, venom proteomics and comparative transcriptomics revealed completely contrasting venom profiles. While the venom gland transcriptomes of all three species were highly similar, venom proteomes and toxicity profiles differed significantly, suggesting the prominent role of post-genomic regulatory mechanisms in shaping the venoms of these cryptic kraits. In vitro venom recognition and in vivo neutralisation experiments revealed a strong negative impact of venom variability on the preclinical performance of commercial antivenoms. While the venom of B. caeruleus was neutralised as per the manufacturer&rsquo, s claim, performance against the venoms of B. sindanus and B. romulusi was poor, highlighting the need for regionally-effective antivenoms in India.

A new species of pitviper, Trimeresurus arunachalensis sp. nov., is described based on a single specimen. It differs from all known congeners by the following combination of characters — 19:17:15 acutely keeled dorsal scale rows (except first row — keeled or smooth); overall reddish-brown coloration; white dorsolateral stripe on outer posterior edges of ventrals and sometimes first dorsal scale row; 7 supralabials; 6 – 7 scales between supraoculars; 145 ventrals; 51 paired subcaudals (excluding the terminal scale); single anal; a sharply defined canthus rostralis with the margin overhanging the loreal region; a distinctly concave rostral scale with the upper edge projecting well beyond its lower margin; an unforked, attenuate hemipenis that extends to the 8th subcaudal scale, and has no visible spines. DNA phylogenetic analysis indicates that the new species is distinct from congeners and nested well within the Trimeresurus clade. The closest relative based on available DNA data is T. tibetanus . The new species is presently known from a single locality — Ramda, West Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India.

We report a case of severe envenoming with unusual complications and two anecdotal cases of fatalities following proven 17-scale-row ‘Sind krait’ (Bungarus cf. sindanus) bites on people sleeping in temporary huts at construction sites in Pune District, Maharashtra, India. A 25-yr-old male developed progressive neuromuscular paralysis, abdominal pain and autonomic disturbances complicated by four prolonged episodes of pulseless ventricular tachycardia requiring defibrillation, and followed by pulmonary edema secondary to impaired left ventricular systolic function and hyperfusion. There was no response to antivenom; mechanical ventilation was required for six days. Only one other case of fatal envenoming likely caused by this species had been reported previously in India. The distribution of B. sindanus sensu lato from eastern Afghanistan to India overlaps with that of the superficially very similar common krait (Bungarus caeruleus). Thus, B. cf. sindanus envenoming may be common but routinely overlooked or misdiagnosed.

Based on analyses of new DNA sequence data for two nuclear (rag1, cmos) and three mitochondrial (16s, cytb, nd4) genes, the Indian snake genus Rhabdops is a natricine. Variation in geography, DNA sequences, the number of ventral scales, pattern and colour for samples of Rhabdops from along the Western Ghats region of peninsular India is concordant, discontinuous and bimodal. We recognise populations from the northern Western Ghats as distinct specifically from the more southerly R. olivaceus and describe Rhabdops aquaticus sp. nov. based on a series of eight specimens from two localities in the Northern Western Ghats. Rhabdops aquaticus sp. nov. is associated particularly with upland laterite plateaus and their associated streams, a threatened habitat within its known distribution.

MB and MR were funded by a grant from the Esmee Fairbairn Foundation, BC by the Rufford Foundation. North American and Mexican species assessments were funded by the Regina Bauer Frankenberg Foundation for Animal Welfare. Species assessments under the Global Reptile Assessment (GRA) initiative are supported by: Moore Family Foundation, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Conservation International, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), and European Commission. Additional acknowledgements are included in the online supplementary material. The assessment workshop for Mexican reptiles was kindly hosted by Ricardo Ayala and the station personnel of the Estacion de Biologia Chamela, Institut de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. Workshop and logistical organisation of the Philippines assessments was provided by the Conservation International Philippines Office, in particular Ruth Grace Rose Ambal, Melizar V. Duya and Oliver Coroza. Workshop and logistical organisation for the European Reptile and Amphibian Assessments was provided by Doga Dernegi, in particular Ozge Balkiz and Ozgur Koc. Workshop and logistical organisation for assessments of sea snakes and homalopsids was provided by the International Sea Turtle Symposium and Dr. Colin Limpus (Australian Government Environmental Protection Agency). Special thanks to Jenny Chapman (EPA) and Chloe Schaub le (ISTS). Thank you also to Dr. Gordon Guymer (Chief Botanist Director of Herbarium) for accommodating us at the Herbarium in the Brisbane Botanical Gardens, and Mark Read and Kirsten Dobbs (Great Barrier Reef Marine Parks Association) and Dave Pollard and Brad Warren (Ocean Watch Australia) for institutional support. Mohamed Bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund, Conservation International Madagascar and the Darwin Initiative contributed to funding the costs of the Madagascar reptile workshop., Effective and targeted conservation action requires detailed information about species, their distribution, systematics and ecology as well as the distribution of threat processes which affect them. Knowledge of reptilian diversity remains surprisingly disparate, and innovative means of gaining rapid insight into the status of reptiles are needed in order to highlight urgent conservation cases and inform environmental policy with appropriate biodiversity information in a timely manner. We present the first ever global analysis of extinction risk in reptiles, based on a random representative sample of 1500 species (16% of all currently known species). To our knowledge, our results provide the first analysis of the global conservation status and distribution patterns of reptiles and the threats affecting them, highlighting conservation priorities and knowledge gaps which need to be addressed urgently to ensure the continued survival of the world’s reptiles. Nearly one in five reptilian species are threatened with extinction, with another one in five species classed as Data Deficient. The proportion of threatened reptile species is highest in freshwater environments, tropical regions and on oceanic islands, while data deficiency was highest in tropical areas, such as Central Africa and Southeast Asia, and among fossorial reptiles. Our results emphasise the need for research attention to be focussed on tropical areas which are experiencing the most dramatic rates of habitat loss, on fossorial reptiles for which there is a chronic lack of data, and on certain taxa such as snakes for which extinction risk may currently be underestimated due to lack of population information. Conservation actions specifically need to mitigate the effects of human-induced habitat loss and harvesting, which are the predominant threats to reptiles., Esmee Fairbairn Foundation, Rufford Foundation, Regina Bauer Frankenberg Foundation for Animal Welfare, Moore Family Foundation, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation, Conservation International, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), European Commission Joint Research Centre, Zayed Species Conservation Fund, Conservation International Madagascar, Darwin Initiative

A new species of the uropeltid snake genus, Melanophidium Gunther, 1864 is described based on a series of eight specimens. Melanophidium khairei sp. nov. is the fourth species described in the genus, and the first for 144 years. Superficially M. khairei sp. nov. resembles M. punctatum Beddome, 1871 in being piebald and punctate (and it was previously misidentified as M. punctatum), but in many scalation characters it more closely resembles M. wynaudense (Beddome, 1863). The new species occurs in southern Maharashtra, Goa, and northern Karnataka, in the Western Ghats region of peninsula India. It is the most northerly member of its genus. Lectotypes and paralectotypes are designated for M. wynaudense, M. bilineatum Beddome, 1870, and M. punctatum. A new key to the species of Melanophidium is presented. Aspects of the morphology, taxonomy and distribution of the three previously described species of Melanophidium are reviewed and revised.