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HighlightsPrior to participation in meet marathon races such as Berlin marathon, elite runners should select the group that they will join during the race according to their current performance level as a preassigned pace set by a pacemaker will be adopted.Athletes could follow an even rather than positive pacing behaviour which will allow them to achieve a more optimal performance.Female runners should consider being paced by a male runner of greater performance level as runners of both sexes are allowed to run the race altogether during this type of races.

Purpose: This review aimed to determine (1) performance and training characteristics such as training intensity distribution (TID), volume, periodization, and methods in highly trained/elite distance runners and (2) differences in training volume and TID between event distances in highly trained/elite distance runners. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was carried out using the PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Results: Ten articles met the inclusion criteria. Highly trained/elite distance runners typically follow a pyramidal TID approach, characterized by a decreasing training volume from zone 1 (at or below speed at first ventilatory/lactate threshold [LT]) to zone 2 (between speeds associated with either both ventilatory thresholds or 2 and 4 mmol·L−1 LTs [vLT1 and vLT2, respectively]) and zone 3 (speed above vVT2/vLT2). Continuous-tempo runs or interval training sessions at vLT2 in zone 2 (ie, medium and long aerobic intervals) and those in zone 3 (ie, anaerobic or short-interval training) were both used at least once per week each in elite runners, and they were used to increase the number of either vLT2 or z3 sessions to adopt either a pyramidal or a polarized approach, respectively. More pyramidal- and polarized-oriented approaches were used by marathoners and 1500-m runners, respectively. Conclusions: Highly trained and elite middle- and long-distance runners are encouraged to adopt a traditional periodization pattern with a hard day–easy day basis, consisting in a shift from a pyramidal TID used during the preparatory and precompetitive periods toward a polarized TID during the competitive period.

Fernández-Galván, LM, Casado, A, García-Ramos, A, and Haff, GG. Effects of vest and sled resisted sprint training on sprint performance in young soccer players: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 36(7): 2023-2034, 2022-The aim of the meta-analysis was to determine the effect of resisted sprint training (RST) on sprint performance in young (20 years) soccer players and to analyze whether the training equipment (sled or vest) and magnitude of the resistive load (above or below 20% of body mass [BM]) influences the long-term adaptations in sprint performance. Resisted sprint training reduced the acceleration phase time [standardized mean difference (SMD) = -0.41], with greater reduction in sprint time occurring in response to applying resistance with a vest (SMD = -0.70) when compared with a sled (SMD = -0.27). Similar reductions were determined for resistive loads20% (SMD = -0.55) and ≥20% of BM (SMD = -0.31). Full sprint time showed a small reduction after RST (SMD = -0.36), regardless of the training equipment (sled: SMD = -0.44; vest: SMD = -0.26) and resistive load (20% of BM: SMD = -0.40 ≥ 20% of BM: SMD = -0.21). There was a small and nonsignificant reduction in the maximum-velocity phase after RST (SMD = -0.25), which was comparable when the training was performed with vest (SMD = -0.34) or sled (SMD = -0.22). No significant differences in the changes of the acceleration phase time (SMD = 0.05) or full sprint time (SMD = 0.08) were observed between the experimental (sled or vest RST) and control groups (only soccer or unresisted sprint training). In conclusion, RST is effective to improve sprint performance in young soccer players, but the improvements are not superior to unresisted sprint training.

Purpose:Optimal training for endurance performance remains a debated topic. In this case study, the training of a world-class middle-/long-distance runner over a year’s duration is presented.Methods:The training is analyzed via 2 methods to define training intensity distribution (TID) (1) by physiological zones and (2) by zones based on race pace. TID was analyzed over the full season, but also over the final 6, 12, and 26 weeks to allow for consideration of periodization/phases of season. The results of both methods are compared. Other training data measured include volume and number of sessions.Results:The average weekly volume for the athlete was 145.8 (24.8) km·wk−1. TID by physiological analysis was polarized for the last 6 weeks of the season but was pyramidal when analyzed over the final 12, 26, and 52 weeks of the season. TID by race-pace analysis was pyramidal across all time points. The athlete finished 12th in the final of the World Championship 5000-m and made the semifinal of the 1500-m. He was ranked in the top 16 in the world for 1500, 5000, and 10,000 m.Conclusion:The results of this study demonstrate a potential flaw with recent work suggesting polarized training as the most effective means to improve endurance performance. Here, different analysis methods produced 2 different types of TID. A polarized distribution was only seen when analyzed by physiological approach, and only during the last 6 weeks of a 52-week season. Longer-term prospective studies relating performance and physiological changes are suggested.

The aim of the present study was to describe a novel training model based on lactate-guided threshold interval training (LGTIT) within a high-volume, low-intensity approach, which characterizes the training pattern in some world-class middle- and long-distance runners and to review the potential physiological mechanisms explaining its effectiveness. This training model consists of performing three to four LGTIT sessions and one VO2max intensity session weekly. In addition, low intensity running is performed up to an overall volume of 150–180 km/week. During LGTIT sessions, the training pace is dictated by a blood lactate concentration target (i.e., internal rather than external training load), typically ranging from 2 to 4.5 mmol·L−1, measured every one to three repetitions. That intensity may allow for a more rapid recovery through a lower central and peripheral fatigue between high-intensity sessions compared with that of greater intensities and, therefore, a greater weekly volume of these specific workouts. The interval character of LGTIT allows for the achievement of high absolute training speeds and, thus, maximizing the number of motor units recruited, despite a relatively low metabolic intensity (i.e., threshold zone). This model may increase the mitochondrial proliferation through the optimization of both calcium and adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathways.

The aim of the present study was to develop an explanatory model of doping susceptibility among competitive track and field athletes using a logistic regression analysis accounting for some morality-related variables which were not explored in previous studies. A total of 281 Spanish elite track and field athletes (49.5% women, 48.4% have competed with the national team) completed an online survey measuring different constructs in relation to doping susceptibility. The final model demonstrated that nutritional supplements (OR: 2.39; CI: 1.16–4.90; p < 0.05), moral disengagement (OR: 2.17; CI: 1.48–3.19; p < 0.001), acceptance of gamesmanship (OR: 1.29; CI: 1.12–1.49; p < 0.001), and descriptive norms (OR: 1.21; CI: 1.04–1.41; p < 0.05) are the factors better explaining doping susceptibility. The profile of the athlete at risk of being more susceptible to doping is represented by someone who is aged under 20 years, believes that doping is present in his/her sport, has positive attitudes of acceptance of gamesmanship, is morally disconnected from doping, and frequently consumes nutritional supplements. It is recommended to deliver education related to the use of sports supplements and potential ill-effects of performance-enhancing substances or methods, and to engage athletes in doping prevention programs at an early age.

Training-intensity distribution (TID) is considered the key factor to optimize performance in endurance sports. This systematic review aimed to: I) characterize the TID typically used by middle-and long-distance runners; II) compare the effect of different types of TID on endurance performance and its physiological determinants; III) determine the extent to which different TID quantification methods can calculate same TID outcomes from a given training program. The keywords and search strategy identified 20 articles in the research databases. These articles demonstrated differences in the quantification of the different training-intensity zones among quantification methods (i. e. session-rating of perceived exertion, heart rate, blood lactate, race pace, and running speed). The studies that used greater volumes of low-intensity training such as those characterized by pyramidal and polarized TID approaches, reported greater improvements in endurance performance than those which used a threshold TID. Thus, it seems that the combination of high-volume at low-intensity (≥ 70% of overall training volume) and low-volume at threshold and high-intensity interval training (≤ 30%) is necessary to optimize endurance training adaptations in middle-and long-distance runners. Moreover, monitoring training via multiple mechanisms that systematically encompasses objective and subjective TID quantification methods can help coaches/researches to make better decisions.

A well-planned periodized approach allows swimmers to achieve peak performance at the major national and international competitions. Purpose: To identify the main characteristics of endurance training for highly trained swimmers described by the training intensity distribution (TID), volume, and periodization models. Methods: The electronic databases Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched using a comprehensive list of relevant terms. Studies that investigated the effect of the periodization of training in swimming, with the training load (volume, TID) and periodization reported, were included in the systematic review. Results: A total of 3487 studies were identified, and after removal of duplicates and elimination of papers based on title and abstract screening, 17 articles remained. A further 8 articles were excluded after full text review, leaving a final total of 9 studies in the systematic review. The evidence levels were 1b for intervention studies (n = 3) and 2b for (observational) retrospective studies (n = 6). The sprint swimmers typically followed a polarized and threshold TID, the middle-distance swimmers followed a threshold and pyramidal TID, and the long-distance swimmers primarily followed a pyramidal TID. The periodization model identified in the majority of studies selected is characterized by wave-like cycles in units like mesocycles to promote physiological adaptations and skill acquisition. Conclusions: Highly trained swimmers follow a training volume and TID based on their primary event. There is a need for further experimental studies on the effects of block and reverse periodization models on swimming performance. Although observational studies of training have limited evidence, it is unclear whether a different training/periodization approach would yield better results.

The aim was to determine the pacing strategies used to achieve male 1500 m running world record performances. Lap times (three first laps and the last 300 m) for the last 37 male 1500 m world record performances achieved since 1917 until 1998 were collected. An analysis of variance with repeated measures and a Bonferroni post hoc test were conducted to determine differences between the percentages of race average speed at each lap. Lap 1 and last 300 m differed from lap 2 and 3, being the latter slower (

The aim of this study was to determine the influence of running wide on bends regarding intermediate changes of position, dispersion of athletes, and speed relative to season best (SB) between medalists and non-medalists in men’s and women’s 800 m championship finals. Extra distance covered on bends was measured using official videos. The total distance run was calculated and described as the minimum calculable distance. Theoretical mean speeds, theoretical finishing times and theoretical finishing positions were calculated. In addition, intermediate and total changes of position (on bends and straights) and dispersion between athletes in each 100-m segment were calculated. Finishing times and segment times were calculated relative to SB. Theoretical finishing times were faster than official finishing times (p

Es objeto de este artículo analizar el efecto de la COVID-19 en la práctica deportiva de personas participantes en eventos deportivos de carrera a pie y ciclismo en España y Portugal. Se consideró la situación de práctica deportiva en España y Portugal previa a la irrupción de la COVID-19, como ambos Gobiernos legislan para proteger a los ciudadanos de la pandemia y se analizan las consecuencias de éstas. Se realizó una investigación descriptiva mediante el uso de cuestionario (N=2696) y análisis estadístico descriptivo según características y distribución (prueba de la normalidad) de las diferentes variables: frecuencias, valores medios, máximas y mínimas, mediana e IQR. De los resultados obtenidos se puede destacar: a) la casi plena coincidencia entre estados del perfil genérico de los practicantes; el orden por porcentaje de las variables, e incluso, los porcentajes de cada variable para cuatro de las cinco dimensiones analizadas; b) la dimensión que más difiere fue como se adaptaron durante la fase de confinamiento las personas practicantes en España y Portugal, y c) que en todo momento las personas encuestadas percibieron que las adaptaciones serían pasajeras y era cuestión de algunos meses que se volviera a la normalidad. Estos datos permiten entender el efecto que la pandemia de la COVID-19 tuvo en la práctica deportiva y de participantes de eventos deportivos en el medio natural en España y Portugal. Abstract. The aim of this article is to analyze the impact of COVID-19 on physical activity on people who participate on running and cycling sporting events people in Spain and Portugal. It was considered The situation of sports practice in Spain and Portugal prior to the outbreak of COVID-19, as both governments legislate to protect citizens from the pandemic and it was analyzed the consequences of these acts. A descriptive investigation was carried out using a questionnaire (N=2696) and descriptive statistical analysis according to characteristics and distribution (test of normality) of different variables: frequencies, average, maximum and minimum values, median and IQR. From the results, the following can be highlighted: a) almost complete coincidence between both countries, of the generic profile of the practitioners; the order, by percentage, of the variables, and even the percentages of each variable for four of the five dimensions analyzed; b) the dimension that differs the most is how practitioners in Spain and Portugal adapted during the confinement time, and c) at all times the respondents perceived that the adaptations would be temporary and it was a matter of a few months before they returned to the normality. These data allow to understand the effect of COVID-19 pandemic had on physical activity on people who participate on sporting events in the natural environment in Spain and Portugal.

Jiménez-Reyes, P, Casado, A, González, JE, and Rodríguez-Fernández, C. Influence of hurdling clearance on sprint mechanical properties in high-level athletes. J Strength Cond Res 36(3): 827-831, 2022-Short hurdling races are sprint races in which athletes must also clear 10 hurdles. Assessing the force-velocity (F-V) profile in sprinting has been found useful for implementing individualized training programs and determining the mechanical effectiveness in force application. This study therefore compared the sprint mechanical F-V profile between flat and hurdle conditions to distinguish which mechanical capacity (i.e., maximum force [F0], maximum velocity [V0], or maximum power [Pmax]) is required to optimize performance in hurdling races. Twenty-two athletes (10 men and 12 women, aged: 22.4 ± 3.6 years old) competing at the national and elite performance levels conducted 2 maximal sprints of 40 m in both flat and hurdle conditions. F0, V0, FVslope, Pmax, and decrease and maximal ratio of horizontal force (DRF and RFpeak, respectively) were assessed for each condition. A higher F0 (effect size [ES] = 1.69) and a lower V0 (ES = 2.08), DRF (ES = 3.15) and RFpeak (ES = 1.31) were found in the hurdle condition than in the flat condition. No significant differences were observed between conditions for Pmax (ES = 0.01). These results support the potential of using the F-V profile to monitor sprint mechanics to optimize specific and individualized sprint training programs for hurdlers and sprinters. Coaches of hurdlers should thus consider implementing in their training routines exercises that were found to be effective on the development of F0, such as heavy load resisted sprints.

This study aimed to compare sprint, jump performance, and sprint mechanical variables between endurance-adapted milers (EAM, specialized in 1500–3000-m) and speed-adapted milers (SAM, specialized in 800–1500 m) and to examine the relationships between maximal sprint speed (MSS), anaerobic speed reserve (ASR), sprint, jump performance, and sprint mechanical characteristics of elite middle-distance runners. Fifteen participants (8 EAM; 7 SAM) were evaluated to obtain their maximal aerobic speed, sprint mechanical characteristics (force–velocity profile and kinematic variables), jump, and sprint performance. SAM displayed greater MSS, ASR, horizontal jump, sprint performance, and mechanical ability than EAM (p < 0.05). SAM also showed higher stiffness in the 40-m sprint (p = 0.026) and a higher ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RF) at 10 m (p = 0.003) and RFpeak (p = 0.024). MSS and ASR correlated with horizontal (r = 0.76) and vertical (r = 0.64) jumps, all sprint split times (r ≤ −0.85), stiffness (r = 0.86), and mechanical characteristics (r ≥ 0.56) during the 100-m sprint, and physical qualities during acceleration (r ≥ 0.66) and sprint mechanical effectiveness from the force–velocity profile (r ≥ 0.69). Season-best times in the 800 m were significantly correlated with MSS (r = −0.86). Sprint ability has a crucial relevance in middle-distance runners’ performance, especially for SAM.

Determination of athlete training loads are of great interest to sport practitioners and are widely used in the prescription and monitoring of physical conditioning\ud programs. Although a number of methods of load quantification are used, a common feature is that total load calculations are the product of exercise intensity\ud and duration. We argue that these methods may be limited, however, as they do not account for non-linearities in the biological response to stress, with the end result being that they fail to fully account for the load imposed by high intensity or interval-based training sessions. We end with a call for sport scientists to develop novel method of training load quantification to better deal with this issue.

Training intensity distribution is important to training program design. The zones 1 to 2 boundary can be defined by the Talk Test and the rating of perceived exertion. The zones 2 to 3 boundary can be defined by respiratory gas exchange, maximal lactate steady state, or, more simply, by critical speed (CS). The upper boundary of zone 3 is potential defined by the velocity at maximum oxygen uptake (vVO2max), although no clear strategy has emerged to categorize this intensity. This is not normally definable outside the laboratory. Purpose: This study predicts vVO2max from CS, determined from 1 (1.61 km) and 2 (3.22 km) citizen races in well-trained runners. Methods: A heterogeneous group of well-trained runners (N = 22) performed 1- and 2-mile races and were studied during submaximal and maximal treadmill running to measure oxygen uptake, allowing computation of vVO2max. This vVO2max was compared with CS. Results: vVO2max (4.82 [0.53] m·s−1) was strongly correlated with CS (4.37 [0.49] m·s−1; r = .84, standard error of estimate [SEE] = 0.132 m·s−1), 1-mile speed (5.09 [0.51] m·s−1; r = .84, SEE = 0.130 m·s−1), and 2-mile speed (4.68 [0.49] m·s−1; r = .86, SEE = 0.120 m·s−1). Conclusions: CS, calculated from 2 citizen races (or even training time trials), can be used to make reasonable estimates of vVO2max, which can be used in the design of running training programs.

Coaches strongly influence athletes' attitudes toward doping and can shape athlete's beliefs, behaviors, and decisions to be for or against doping. Coached-centered studies examining multiple factors affecting coaches' doping attitudes and behavior are scarce. The aim of this study was to analyze for the first-time attitudes toward doping in athletics coaches using the Sport Drug Control Model (SDCM) as a theoretical framework. A secondary aim was to determine the factors in the model predicting attitude and susceptibility toward doping. A cross-sectional study was carried out using a sample consisting of 201 Spanish athletics competitive level coaches from whom 11.4% were female. Participants completed a cross-sectional online survey. Structural equation modeling showed a good fitness of the SDCM. Positive attitudes toward doping predicted high susceptibility to doping (β = 0.39, p < 0.001). Moral disengagement (β = 0.58, p < 0.001), descriptive norms (β = 0.42, p = 0.001), ego-oriented goals (β = 0.34, p < 0.05), and self-efficacy to refrain from doping (β = 0.26, p < 0.05) displayed a significant influence on attitudes toward doping. Self-reported doping prevalence in coaches was 4.5%. These variables should be considered when designing anti-doping research projects and educational programs aiming at modifying coaches' attitudes toward doping. It is recommended to focus more efforts on coaches, without putting aside the athletes, and therefore turn coaches into reliable doping prevention factors. To this end, it is necessary to enhance scientific research and then develop, implement, and promote more educational programs targeting coaches, on a mandatory basis while covering the specific needs of coaches so that they can perform their role as anti-doping educators in an effective, committed, and proactive manner.

When I (C. Foster) was in my teens, I was a runner. While any objective observer would have known that my prospects for Olympic medals or world records were low, I had “delusions of grandeur” and believed that I might find the right combination of knowledge and effort to succeed. That never happened. However, that passion and quest for success led to my professional career. For many of us, the same quest to achieve “the impossible dream” drove our professional careers (only 2 of us [A. Casado and K. Chamari] were Olympians, so we are better as scientists than athletes). This same mindset is, to some degree, the underlying rationale for IJSPP. I asked several of my friends to identify factors necessary for success. In other words, what do we know and what do we need to know? Later, in a more detailed referenced manuscript, we can treat this topic more fully.

The present study aimed to determine the epidemiology of sport-related injuries in amateur and professional adolescent athletes and the incidence of different risk factors on those injuries. Four hundred ninety-eight athletes aged 14 to 21 voluntarily participated in this prospective injury surveillance, conducted from 1 January 2019 to 31 December 2019. The information collected included: personal data, sports aspects, characteristics of the injuries, and lifestyle. Forty point four percent of the participants suffered an injury in 2019 (39% of them in a previously injured area). The average injury rate was 2.64 per 1000 h. Soccer presented the highest rate (7.21). The most common injuries were: lumbar muscle strains (12.24%), ankle sprains (11.98%), and bone fractures (9.31%). Ankles (36.12%), knees (19.32%), and shoulders (6.47%) concentrated the highest number of injuries. Fifty-nine point twenty-eight percent of the injuries occurred during practices, and 40.72% during competition or peri-competition. Higher injury rates were associated (in this order) with the following factors: (a) Greater number of hours of practice per week. (b) Not performing warm-ups. (c) Using inadequate sports facilities. (d) Being aged 14–17. (e) Not performing physical preparation. (f) Inappropriate training load. (g) Not performing injury-preventive activities. (h) Performing sports technique without the supervision of one sports coach. (i) Inadequate sports equipment. In conclusion, since most injury risk factors are modifiable, it is imperative to implement strategies to reduce amateur and professional adolescent athletes’ injury rates.

The aim was to compare pacing, biomechanical and perceptual responses between elite speed-and endurance-adapted milers during a sprint interval training session (SIT). Twenty elite and world-class middle-distance runners (male: n = 16, female: n = 4, 24.95 ± 5.18 years, 60.89 ± 7 kg) were classified as either speed- or endurance-adapted milers according to their recent performances at 800 m or longer races than 1500 m (10 subjects per group). Participants performed 10 repetitions of 100 m sprints with 2 min of active recovery between each, and performance, perceptual and biomechanical responses were collected. The difference between accumulated times of the last and the first five repetitions was higher in speed-adapted milers (ES = 1.07) displaying a more positive pacing strategy. A higher coefficient of variation (CV%) was displayed across the session by speed-adapted milers in average repetition time, contact time, and affective valence (ES ≥ 1.15). Speed-adapted milers experienced lower rates of valence after the 4th repetition excepting at the 8th repetition (ES ≥ 0.99). Speed-adapted milers may need to display a more positive pacing profile than endurance-adapted milers and, therefore, would experience lower levels of affective valence and a more rapid increase of ground contact time during a SIT.

Background: The Marathon runners must have the proper technical preparation to reach excellence and to achieve adequate psychological preparation for the race. Against this background, the current study aims to describe the implementation results of a cognitive-behavioral intervention based on psychological skills training for marathon runners.Methods: Fourteen amateur male marathoners with an average age of 30 (SD = 5.75) were trained with various emotional and cognitive control techniques to enhance their performance in competition. Various psychological variables, related to the subjects level of perceived stress, and to qualitative characteristics of their thoughts were measured before and after the target marathon race. Results were analyzed through non-parametric tests for two related samples. The Cohen's d effect size for single-group pretest-posttest repeated measures were also performed.Results: Statistical analysis reveals that, controlling for age and running experience, the intervention decreased significantly the level of perceived stress and the occurrence of negative thoughts before the race, during, and after the race.Conclusion: Training in cognitive control and relaxation techniques, as part of the psychological skills training could determine the quality of performance of marathon runners.

Background Despite the high prevalence of pelvic floor dysfunction (PFD) among women who participate in sports, and the efforts made to affect these pathologies through pelvic floor muscle (PFM) training, its effects on PFM function remain unclear. Objective To evaluate the effects of therapeutic exercise programmes on PFM function and quality of life in female athletes and physically active women. Data sources The following databases were searched: MEDLINE, SCIELO, LILACS, SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS, CINHAL, SCIELO, PEDro, ScienceDirect and COCHRANE from January 2010 to May 2020. Study selection Study selection criteria included clinical trials that recruited either female athletes or physically active women, and evaluated the effects of therapeutic exercise programmes on PFM function. Data synthesis Ten studies met the eligibility criteria, capturing a total of 246 participants, of which 180 were apparently healthy individuals and 66 suffered from PFD. Results Meta-analysis revealed significant improvements in maximal voluntary contraction of the PFMs and reduction of urine leakage after the exercise programmes, although no effects were found for vaginal resting pressure. Limitations Most of the studies reviewed had a small sample size and a high risk of bias. Conclusions and implications of key findings Data suggest the benefits of therapeutic exercise on PFM function, PFD symptoms and quality of life after therapeutic exercise programmes in women who participate in sports. Incorporating therapeutic exercises designed to increase PFM function into physical activity routines could be beneficial for both healthy women and those suffering from PFD. However, due to the stated limitations, firm conclusions cannot be made. Systematic Review Registration Number PROSPERO CRD42020167243.

Objectives. To compare season’s best times preceding major championships (SBprior) and times achieved in major championship flat track races. Material and methods. 2320 men’s and 2312 women’s finishing times over 100 m, 400 m, 800 m, 1500 m and 5000 m at the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) World Championships and Olympic Games from 1999 to 2019, and their SBprior, were obtained via IAAF open-access website. Paired t-tests were used to compare major championship times and SBprior for groups across sex in each event. Repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine differences in the percentage of SBprior achieved in the major championship races (%SBprior) between groups and sexes. Results. Finishing time performances were generally slower than SBprior. The difference between SBprior and championship performances increased with distance run and across preliminary rounds and finals. Differences in %SBprior between sexes were found in non-medal finalists in the 800 m and 5000 m (p < 0.001, ES ≥ 0.72). Conclusions. 1500 m and 5000 m athletes competing at major championships should train and be physiologically prepared to sustain non-even paces and produce a fast endspurt to achieve an optimal performance.

This study aimed to analyse the training intensity distribution (TID) of a group of 7 world-class middle- and long-distance runners over 50 weeks using two different approaches to organise TID zones: (1) based on individual specific race pace and; (2) based on physiological parameters. Analysed training data included training volume, intensity and frequency. The average weekly volume for the group was 135.4 ± 29.4 km·week

Endurance running has become an immensely popular sporting activity, with millions of recreational runners around the world. Despite the great popularity of endurance running as a recreational activity during leisure time, there is no consensus on the best practice for recreational runners to effectively train to reach their individual objectives and improve physical performance in a healthy manner. Moreover, there are lots of anecdotal data without scientific support, while most scientific evidence on endurance running was developed from studies observing both recreational and professional athletes of different levels. Further, the transference of all this information to only recreational runners is difficult due to differences in the genetic predisposition for endurance running, the time available for training, and physical, psychological, and physiological characteristics. Therefore, the aim of this review is to present a selection of scientific evidence regarding endurance running to provide training guidelines to be used by recreational runners and their coaches. The review will focus on some key aspects of the training process, such as periodization, training methods and monitoring, performance prediction, running technique, and prevention and management of injuries associated with endurance running.

Purpose: To assess tactical and performance factors associated with progression from qualification rounds in the 800-m and 1500-m running events at the 2017 International Association of Athletics Federations World Championships. Methods: Official results were used to access final and intermediate positions and times, as well as performance characteristics of competitors. Shared variance between intermediate positions and rank order lap times with finishing positions were calculated, along with probability of automatic qualification, for athletes in each available race position at the end of every 400-m lap. Differences in race positions and lap times relative to season’s best performances were assessed between automatic qualifiers, fastest losers, and nonqualifiers. Results: Race positions at the end of each 400-m lap remained more stable through 800-m races than 1500-m races. Probability of automatic qualification decreased with both race position and rank order lap times on each lap, although rank order lap times accounted for a higher degree of shared variance than did intermediate position. In the 1500-m event, fastest losers ran at a higher percentage of season’s best speed and adopted positions closer to the race lead in the early stages. This was not the case in the 800-m. Conclusions: Intermediate positioning and the ability to produce a fast final race segment are strongly related to advancement from qualification rounds in middle-distance running events. The adoption of a more “risky” strategy characterized by higher speeds relative to season’s best may be associated with an increased likelihood of qualification as fastest losers in the 1500-m event.

This review aimed to examine the current evidence for 3 primary training intensity distribution types: (1) pyramidal training, (2) polarized training, and (3) threshold training. Where possible, the training intensity zones relative to the goal race pace, rather than physiological or subjective variables, were calculated. Three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were searched in May 2017 for original research articles. After analysis of 493 resultant original articles, studies were included if they met the following criteria: (1) Their participants were middle- or long-distance runners; (2) they analyzed training intensity distribution in the form of observational reports, case studies, or interventions; (3) they were published in peer-reviewed journals; and (4) they analyzed training programs with a duration of 4 wk or longer. Sixteen studies met the inclusion criteria, which included 6 observational reports, 3 case studies, 6 interventions, and 1 review. According to the results of this analysis, pyramidal and polarized training are more effective than threshold training, although the latest is used by some of the best marathon runners in the world. Despite this apparent contradictory finding, this review presents evidence for the organization of training into zones based on a percentage of goal race pace, which allows for different periodization types to be compatible. This approach requires further development to assess whether specific percentages above and below race pace are key to inducing optimal changes.

Objective: This study aimed to compare the acute effects of a full squat (SQ) or hip thrust (HT) with two different loading intensities (60% and 85% 1 RM) on sprint ability in junior male tennis players. Methods: Nineteen tennis players were included in this research. They underwent four different experimental conditions: HT at 60% 1 RM, HT at 85% 1 RM, SQ at 60% 1 RM, or SQ at 85%. The force–velocity (F–V) profile was used to assess tennis players’ sprint acceleration ability before and after applying the conditioning stimulus. The variables registered were as follows: 5 m test (5 m), 10 m test (10 m), maximum theoretical force (F0), maximum power (Pmax), and the maximal ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RFpeak). Results: Significant improvements in 5 m, Pmax, and RFpeak were observed when the conditioning stimulus was performing one set of seven reps of HT at 60% 1 RM. When the activation protocol was one set of seven reps of SQ at 60% 1 RM, significant improvements in 5 m, 10 m, F0, Pmax (N), and RFpeak were detected. Additionally, performing one set of three reps of SQ at 85% 1 RM as an activation protocol provided significant improvements in F0. Conclusion: The use of HT and SQ with a load of 60% 1 RM improved the sprint F–V profile components related to the acceleration phase of the sprint in junior tennis players. Using intensity loads of 85% 1 RM is not adequate to increase acute sprint performance in this population. HT presents a higher transferability to sprinting in the first 5 m of sprinting, whereas SQ provides acute improvements in different sprinting phases.

The aim of the present study was to determine the influence of maturation status on the components of the sprint force-velocity (F-V) profile in young soccer players. Sixty-two young male soccer players from the same professional soccer academy took part in the present study. A cross-sectional design was implemented to compare the main components of the sprint F-V profile (i.e., maximal theoretical force (F0), velocity (V0), power (Pmax), and ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (RFpeak), and decrease in the ratio of horizontal-to-resultant force (DRF)) and sprint performance (5, 20, and 30 m sprint time) among participants’ maturation stages (i.e., pre-, mid- and post-peak height velocity (PHV) groups). The results show that the ES of differences in 5 min sprint performance, F0, and RFpeak (i.e., strength- and acceleration-related components of the sprint F-V profile) were greater between pre- and mid-PHV groups than those between mid- and post-PHV groups (i.e., large and very large effects (1.24 ≤ ES ≤ 2.42) vs. moderate, small, and zero effects (0 ≤ ES ≤ 0.69), respectively). However, the ES of differences in V0 and DRF (i.e., peak speed-related components of the sprint F-V profile) were greater between mid- and post-PHV groups than those between pre- and mid-PHV groups (i.e., large effects (1.54 ≤ ES ≤ 1.92) vs. moderate effects (−0.59 ≤ ES ≤ 1), respectively). Once the strength development is achieved to a great extent from the pre- to mid-PHV groups, specific strength training methods may be used for young soccer players to improve their sprint performance.

The aims of the current study were to compare the pacing patterns of all-time 800 m, 1500 m and mile running world records (WRs) and to determine whether differences exist between sexes, and if 800 m and 1500 m WRs were broken during championship or meet races. Overall and lap times for men and women’s 800 m, 1500 m, and mile WRs from World Athletics were collected when available and subsequently compared. A fast initial 200 m segment and a decrease in speed throughout was found during 800 m WRs. Accordingly, the first 200 m and 400 m were faster than the last 200 m and 400 m, respectively (p < 0.001, 0.77 ≤ ES ≤ 1.86). The first 400 m and 409 m for 1500 m and mile WRs, respectively, were faster than the second lap (p < 0.001, 0.74 ≤ ES ≤ 1.46). The third 400 m lap was slower than the last 300 m lap and 400 m lap for 1500 m and mile WRs, respectively (p < 0.001, 0.48 ≤ ES ≤ 1.09). No relevant sex-based differences in pacing strategy were found in any event. However, the first 409 m lap was faster than the last 400 m lap for men but not for women during mile WRs. Women achieved a greater % of WRs than men during championships (80% vs. 45.83% in the 800 m, and 63.63% vs. 31.58% in the 1500 m, respectively). In conclusion, positive, reverse J-shaped and U-shaped pacing profiles were used to break 800 m, men’s mile and 1500 m, and women’s mile WRs, respectively. WRs are more prone to be broken during championships by women than men.

Within the context of expert performance and the deliberate practice approach, the present study analysed the subjective perceptions about the training tasks of a group of international long distance runners from Spain and Kenya. To do so the athletes fulfilled a questionnaire based on taxonomy of training activities that assessed four dimensions: Relevance, Effort, Concentration, and Enjoyment. Thirty eight male runners participated in this study split into two groups according to their nationality as Kenyan (n= 20) or Spanish (n= 18). All the athletes were long distance runners (10,000 meters, Half Marathon and Marathon). The results showed that training activities such as Competition or tests, Long and short interval training and Tempo runs, were considered the tasks that best characterized their deliberate practice. In addition, these tasks produced more enjoyment and demanded more concentration and effort. The most important differences between groups were that Kenyan runners did not practice some training activities that Spanish runners did such as weights and physical fitness training, running technique or alternative trainings. Also, the Kenyan runners gave more importance to Tempo runs, activity which involved them more concentration than to the Spanish runners.

The aim of this novel research was to compare the amount of systematic training and the different training activities undertaken by elite-standard long-distance runners during their first seven years of systematic training. Participants were divided into three performance groups: world-class Kenyans (N = 19), European-standard Spanish athletes (N = 18), and Spanish national-standard athletes (N = 18). Performance and training data were obtained for two-year periods using retrospective recall (including training diaries) from the time the athletes began systematic training, until the seventh year after. These activities included high-intensity training sessions considered deliberate practice (DP) and easy runs. There was no evidence that starting systematic training at a younger age was advantageous, and easy runs (a non-DP activity) were the most used by participants as a proportion of overall running distance. As part of an overall higher accumulation of distance run (P