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Between the years of 2003–2015, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) has identified a global trend signalling a decline in a sense of school belonging for secondary school students. Research has identified several factors that are positively related to school belonging, such as teacher support and academic motivation. However, little empirical research has been conducted to evaluate the relevant school belonging variables holistically and to assess their socio-ecological levels (e.g., student, microsystem, mesosystem) relative to the student. The purpose of this study is to assess the significant predictive variables within each socio-ecological level regarding school belonging. For this purpose, this study used data collected by PISA in 2015, focusing on data from 309,785 15-year-old students attending 12,668 schools in 52 countries around the world. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to a) examine the empirical support for a layered structure of sense of school belonging, b) explore the contributions of variables in each layer of the socio-ecosystem to explain the variability in sense of school belonging and c) examine potential variations in this ability across schools and countries. The models provided support for the existence of such layers but also for some underlying relationships across the variables in the layers of the socio-ecosystem. The study then concludes with a discussion of the implications of the findings for school leaders, teachers and parents with respect to how school belonging approaches and strategies can be absorbed into existing practices and operations at school.

INTRODUCTION: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has changed the way families live, interact, and connect with others, resulting in higher levels of stress for many teenagers who struggle with the ongoing uncertainty and disrupted school and family life. The current study examined the psychosocial factors that influence the capacity of adolescents to grow through the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: The sample included 404 secondary school students ranging in age from 11 to 18 (M = 14.75, SD = 1.59; 50.2% female, 46.8% male, and 3% non-/other gendered or declined to answer) from an independent high school in Australia. Data were collected from a battery of questionnaires that assessed strength-based parenting (SBP) and the effect of three psychosocial factors (positive reappraisal, emotional processing, and school belonging) on stress-related growth. RESULTS: Structural equation modeling showed that (SBP) was significantly associated with stress-related growth (SRG). Positive reappraisal and emotional processing were also positively and significantly associated with SRG and mediated the effect of SBP on SRG. Moreover, school belonging was positively linked to positive coping, emotional processing, and SRG, as well as mediating the association of SBP with positive reappraisal, emotional processing, and SRG in adolescents during the pandemic. CONCLUSIONS: The results show that teenagers can experience SRG during the COVID-19 pandemic, and adolescents adapting by engaging in constructive coping responses such as positive reappraisal and emotional processing is positively related to SRG.

Sense of school belonging has a strong impact on adolescents’ well-being, and whilst there are many factors that can influence school belonging, two of the most salient factors include perceived teacher support and exposure to bullying . While the association between school belonging and teacher support and school belonging and exposure to bullying are well documented in the literature, less is known about how these relationships vary depending on students’ socioeconomic status (SES). The aim of this study was to investigate whether SES moderated the relationship between school belonging and these school-related factors. The sample was drawn from the 14,273 Australian 15 and 16-year-olds who completed the 2018 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development’s (OECD) Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) survey. Linear regression analyses revealed that the association between school belonging and teacher support was not moderated by SES and there was a positive relationship between SES and sense of school belonging, even after accounting for teacher support, exposure to bullying and other student and school characteristics. Despite limitations, this study fills a gap in the literature, provides a foundation for further research to build on, and has potential implications for how safety should be promoted for students of both high and low SES for teacher support to more strongly influence their sense of school belonging.

School belonging is associated with a range of positive educational and developmental outcomes, including psychosocial health and wellbeing, prosocial behaviour and academic achievement, and transition into adulthood. However, an increasing number of students worldwide report not feeling a sense of belonging to their school. There is growing research evidence that strong student–teacher relationships can promote school belonging, however creating these relationships within highly complex educational systems can be challenging. Further, only a few interventions focusing specifically on belonging that are available in schools have been found to be effective. This chapter highlights the importance of teacher support for a student’s sense of school belonging, discusses challenges associated with student–teacher relationships, and points to strategies for building strong relationships. We highlight the role that school leaders play in fostering strong relationships, and consider extensions within higher education, and future directions. Considering the importance of student–teacher relationships towards a student’s sense of school belonging, and the empirical base that points to both short- and long-term outcomes, implications for widespread benefits are possible for schools that prioritize and value positive relationships between staff and students.