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Objective: There have been few psychological autopsy studies of suicide among individuals with personality disorders. The possible specificity of characteristics of suicide among such individuals has been little investigated. Method: A random sample of 229 subjects who committed suicide, representing all suicide victims in Finland within a 12-month period, were comprehensively examined by using the psychological autopsy method and were diagnosed according to DSM-III-R criteria. Within this random sample the authors investigated all subjects with axis II personality disorders (N=67) and divided them into clusters B (N=43), C (N=23), and A (N=1). Individuals with clusters B and C personality disorders were separately compared with sex- and age-matched suicide victims without personality disorder, in terms of sociodemographic characteristics, comorbid axis I and III syndromes, treatment histories, previous suicide attempts, communication of suicide intent, and suicide methods. Results: All suicide victims with a personality disorder received at least one axis I diagnosis. In 95% this included a depressive syndrome, a psychoactive substance use disorder, or both. Individuals with cluster B personality disorders were more likely than comparison subjects to have psychoactive substance use disorders (79% versus 40%) and previous nonfatal suicide attempts (70% versus 37%) and were less likely to have axis III physical disorders (29% versus 50%). Subjects with cluster C personality disorders were not found to differ from the control subjects in any of the variables examined. Conclusions: Suicide victims with personality disorders were almost always found to have had current depressive syndromes, psychoactive substance use disorders, or both. Suicide victims with cluster B personality disorders differed from other suicide victims in several characteristics, while those with cluster C personality disorders did not.

Objective: The authors' goal was to determine whether people who committed suicide within 4 weeks after having made contact with a health care professional communicated their intent to commit suicide during that final contact. Method: Using data from a nationwide psychological autopsy study of all suicides in Finland that occurred in 1 year, the authors examined the 571 cases of suicide victims whose last appointment with a health care professional took place up to 28 days before suicide, including 100 cases of victims who had appointments on the day of suicide. Results: Suicide intent was reportedly discussed in only 22% of the cases; it was particularly uncommon in general practice and nonpsychiatric specialist settings. Conclusions: The majority of patients who commit suicide do not seem to communicate their intent to do so during their last appointment.

Objective: The authors examined suicides of persons with bipolar disorder in aspects relevant to suicide prevention, including clinical features, treatment contacts, adequacy of treatment received, communication of suicidal intent, and suicide methods. Method: All suicide victims with DSM-III-R bipolar I disorder among all 1,397 suicides in Finland within a 12-month period were carefully studied using the psychological autopsy method and were compared to suicide victims with unipolar major depression. Results: Thirty-one bipolar I victims were identified. Most suicides of persons with bipolar disorder occurred during a major depressive episode (79%), but in some cases it occurred during a mixed state (11%) or even during or immediately after remission of psychotic mania (11%). Men had a higher rate of comorbid alcoholism, a lesser mean age, and shorter treatment histories than women. Although 74% of the victims were receiving psychiatric care at the time of suicide, and 39% had even explicitly communicated their intent to health care personnel during the last 3 months, only 11% of those who were depressed had received adequate doses of antidepressants and none had received ECT. Only 32% of the bipolar patients were prescribed lithium. In comparison to unipolar depressed suicide victims, the bipolar victims had more divorces, longer treatment histories, and more frequent hospitalizations. Conclusions: Although late suicides were common among both male and female bipolar victims, suicide seemed to occur earlier among males. Most bipolar victims had had a recent psychiatric treatment contact, but few had received adequate treatment immediately before death. Suicide victims with unipolar and bipolar disorders differed in marital status and treatment history.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine a sample representing all suicide victims with current DSM-III-R major depression in Finland within 1 year in aspects relevant to suicide prevention, including comorbidity, clinical history, current treatment, suicide methods, and communication of suicide intent. Method: Using the psychological autopsy method, the authors examined all 71 suicide victims with current unipolar DSM-III-R major depression, taken from a random sample of 229 subjects representing 16.4% of all suicide victims in Finland in 1 year. Results: The majority (85%) were complicated cases with comorbid diagnoses, and comorbidity varied according to the subjects' sex and age. Three-quarters had a history of psychiatric treatment, but only 45% were receiving psychiatric treatment at the time of death. Most suicide victims had received no treatment for depression. Only 3% had received antidepressants in adequate doses, 7% weekly psychotherapy, and 3% ECT. None of the 24 psychotic subjects had received adequate psychopharmacological treatment. Few (8%) had used an antidepressant overdose as a suicide method. Men had received less treatment for depression and had more commonly used violent suicide methods. Conclusions: Although about half of the suicide victims with major depression were receiving psychiatric care at the time of death, few were receiving adequate treatment for depression. There were significant sex differences in current and previous treatment and suicide methods. For suicide prevention in major depression, it would seem crucial to improve treatment and follow-up, for males with major depression, in particular.

Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the prevalence and comorbidity of current mental disorders defined by DSM-III-R among a random sample of suicide victims from a nationwide suicide population. Method: Using a psychological autopsy method, the authors collected comprehensive data on all suicide victims in Finland during 1 year. Retrospective axis I-III consensus diagnoses were assigned to 229 (172 male, 57 female) victims. Results: One or more diagnoses on axis I were made for 93% of the victims. The most prevalent disorders were depressive disorders (59%) and alcohol dependence or abuse (43%). The prevalence of major depression was higher among females (46%) than among males (26%). Alcohol dependence was more common among the males (39% versus 18% for females). A diagnosis on axis II was made for 31% and at least one diagnosis on axis III for 46% of the cases. Only 12% of the victims received one axis I diagnosis without any comorbidity. Conclusions: The majority of suicide victims suffered from comorbid mental disorders. Comorbidity needs to be taken into account when analyzing the relationship between suicide and mental disorders and in planning treatment strategies for suicide prevention in clinical practice.

• The prevalence of mental disorders (DSM-III-R Axes I and II) among adolescent suicide victims (n = 53) was investigated in a nationwide psychological autopsy study in Finland. The data were collected comprehensively through interviews of the victims' relatives and attending health care personnel and from official records. Following independent assessment by two psychiatrists, the DSM-III-R diagnoses were assigned in consensus meetings. A large majority of the victims (94%) suffered from a mental disorder. The most prevalent disorders were depressive disorders (51%) and alcohol abuse or dependence (26%). The prevalence of adjustment disorders (21%) was higher than in most studies from other countries. Personality disorder was diagnosed in 32% of the cases. Comorbidity was found in 51% of the victims. The results indicate a strong relatedness between adolescent suicide and the presence of depression, antisocial behavior, and alcohol abuse.

Recent life events as reported by the next of kin were explored in male and female suicide victims to see how these factors varied across age groups by decade of age. The study population comprised all 1022 suicide victims aged 20 years and older in Finland during a 12-month period who had life event data assessed as reliable by the interviewing mental health professionals. Age-related patterns of variation of life events were found: separation, serious family arguments, financial trouble, job problems, unemployment, and residence change were more common among younger victims, whereas somatic illness and retirement were more common among older victims. Mean number of life events, greater among men than women, tended to decline gradually across the age range. In terms of sex differences, somatic illness was more common among elderly men, while separation, financial trouble, and unemployment were more common among younger men.

A study by Hoyer and Lund,1 which was published in the Archives, reported a negative association between rates of suicide and number of children among women in Norway, suggesting that parenthood might have a protecting effect against suicide. The authors discuss the question of whether this protection is due to having children per se or by possible selection factors related to mental disorders. Ideally, differences in suicide risk related to parenthood could be estimated by controlling for specific mental disorders, but no such data have yet been reported. SUBJECTS AND METHODS. In the National Suicide Prevention Project in Finland,2 all suicides (N=1397) committed in Finland between April 1,1987, and March 31,1988, were analyzed using the method of psychological autopsy. On the basis of the interviews of next of kin, 57% (651/1141) of suicide victims were reported to have had children. Those victims who had children were significantly older