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Importance: Racial implicit bias can contribute to health disparities through its negative influence on physician communication with Black patients. Interventions for physicians to address racial implicit bias in their clinical encounters are limited by a lack of high-fidelity (realistic) simulations to provide opportunities for skill development and practice., Objective: To describe the development and initial evaluation of a high-fidelity simulation of conditions under which physicians might be influenced by implicit racial bias., Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study, performed on an online platform from March 1 to September 30, 2022, recruited a convenience sample of physician volunteers to pilot an educational simulation., Exposures: In the simulation exercise, physicians saw a 52-year-old male standardized patient (SP) (presenting as Black or White) seeking urgent care for epigastric pain, nausea, and vomiting. The case included cognitive stressors common to clinical environments, including clinical ambiguity, stress, time constraints, and interruptions. Physicians explained their diagnosis and treatment plan to the SP, wrote an assessment and management plan, completed surveys, and took the Race Implicit Association Test (IAT) and Race Medical Cooperativeness IAT. The SPs, blinded to the purpose of the study, assessed each physician's communication using skills checklists and global rating scales., Main Outcomes and Measures: Association between physicians' IAT scores and SP race with SP ratings of communication skills., Results: In 60 physicians (23 [38.3%] Asian, 4 [6.7%] Black, 23 [38.3%] White, and 10 [16.7%] other, including Latina/o/x, Middle Eastern, and multiracial; 31 [51.7%] female, 27 [45.0%] male, and 2 [3.3%] other), the interaction of physicians' Race IAT score and SP race was significant for overall communication (mean [SD] β = -1.29 [0.41]), all subdomains of communication (mean [SD] β = -1.17 [0.52] to -1.43 [0.59]), and overall global ratings (mean [SD] β = -1.09 [0.39]). Black SPs rated physicians lower on communication skills for a given pro-White Race IAT score than White SPs; White SP ratings increased as physicians' pro-White bias increased., Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study, a high-fidelity simulation calibrated with cognitive stressors common to clinical environments elicited the expected influence of racial implicit bias on physicians' communication skills. The outlined process and preliminary results can inform the development and evaluation of interventions that seek to address racial implicit bias in clinical encounters and improve physician communication with Black patients.

Background: Practical wisdom is considered a multidimensional virtue of enduring relevance to medicine. Though it has received increasing attention in recent years, proposed frameworks for practical wisdom can differ, and little is known about how medical students and physicians describe its dimensions and relevance., Methods: We used structured interviews, employing open-ended and closed-ended questions, to describe how medical students and physicians understand practical wisdom and identify the kinds of clinical situations they believe require practical wisdom. We interviewed 102 participants at two US medical schools in 2021, comprising a voluntary response sample of 40 pre-clinical medical students and 40 clinical medical students and a purposive sample of 22 nominated physicians. Interviews were conducted by videoconference using a structured interview guide. Open-ended responses were coded using qualitative content analysis (directed and conventional) and tabulated; closed-ended responses were tabulated. Quotations provided qualitative illustrations, and frequencies were used for summative results., Results: Participants considered practical wisdom clinically meaningful, broadly relevant and multidimensional. Most described it as deliberative, goal-directed, context-sensitive, integrated with ethics and marked by integrity and motivation to act. Many described it as experience-based, person-centred or problem-solving. Participants also selected an average of 15.6 (SD = 4.9) additional virtues as being essential for practical wisdom in medicine and described a broad range of clinical situations that require practical wisdom in medicine., Conclusions: Participants described practical wisdom as a multidimensional capacity that entails deliberation, depends on a constellation of other virtues and is broadly applicable to medicine. Most agreed it is goal-directed and context-sensitive and involves ethics, integrity and motivation. Efforts to teach practical wisdom in medical education should clarify its dimensions and highlight its relationship to virtue ethics, professionalism, clinical judgement and the individualised care of patients as persons., (© 2023 The Authors. Medical Education published by Association for the Study of Medical Education and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Incoming medical students at a private midwestern medical school are routinely surveyed at the time of matriculation on wellness measures, one of which is the Almost Perfect Scale - Revised (APS-R). An 8-item subset of this 23-item scale has been suggested as an alternative perfectionism measure, called the Short Almost Perfect Scale (SAPS). To confirm the within-network and between-network construct validity of both scales in our population, responses in 592 matriculating medical students from the years 2020-2022 were analyzed using both versions of this scale. Confirmatory factor analysis found the items significantly measured the construct of perfectionism in the SAPS scale, but not the APS-R. The APS-R was not analyzed further. SAPS was analyzed for measurement invariance (MI) and was equivocal for gender at the scalar level; differential item functioning indicated that any MI effect was small. Latent profile analysis was inconclusive in our sample, possibly because our students' scores on the latent variable "standards" were consistently higher than previously reported. We recommend that the SAPS be used rather than the APS in medical students, that gender differences be analyzed with caution, and that profiles of types of perfectionists not be utilized in this population without further investigation. Finally, we suggest that the discrepancy scale alone may be a better indicator of perfectionism in this population of high achievers., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Ellinas, Ark, Ferguson and Zhang.)

Problem: The extent of medical student unwellness is well documented. Learner distress may impact patient care, workforce adequacy, and learners' performance and personal health. The authors describe the philosophy, structure, and content of the novel REACH (Recognize, Empathize, Allow, Care, Hold each other up) curriculum and provide a preliminary evaluation., Approach: The REACH curriculum is a mandatory, longitudinal well-being curriculum for first- and second-year medical students at the Medical College of Wisconsin (MCW) designed to prepare them for the emotional life of being a physician. The curriculum uses a framework, core concepts, and skills from the field of trauma stewardship. It builds on effective medical student well-being interventions (e.g., mindfulness-based training) and the sharing of personal stories by instructors during didactic and small-group sessions that are integrated into the regular MCW curriculum. During the first 2 years of implementation (2018-2019 and 2019-2020), the curriculum was evaluated using mid- and postcurriculum student surveys., Outcomes: Over 700 students have completed the REACH curriculum as of March 2022. Overall, most students who responded to the surveys in 2018-2020 reported that they felt the REACH curriculum material was important, that the curriculum met their expectations for a quality medical school course, and that they would recommend other schools incorporate a similar curriculum. Respondents to the 2019-2020 postcurriculum survey indicated the REACH curriculum helped them develop self-care (84% [85/101]), mindfulness (76% [76/101]), and help-seeking (71% [72/101]) skills., Next Steps: The initial outcomes show that integrating a mandatory well-being curriculum is feasible and acceptable to medical students. The authors plan to examine the relationships between student-reported well-being metrics, academic and clinical performance data, and professional identity formation. They are also prototyping electronic dashboards that will allow students to interact with their well-being data to promote timely help-seeking and behavior change., (Copyright © 2022 by the Association of American Medical Colleges.)

Background: The coronavirus pandemic accelerated academic medicine into the frontline of research and clinical work, leaving some faculty exhausted, and others with unanticipated time off. Women were particularly vulnerable, having increased responsibilities in both academic work and caregiving. Methods: The authors sought to determine faculty's responses to the pandemic, seeking predictors of accelerated versus decelerated academic productivity and work-life balance. In this survey of 424 faculty from a private Midwest academic medical center completed in August-September 2020, faculty rated multiple factors both "pre-COVID" and "during the COVID-19 lockdown," and a change score was calculated. Results: In a binary logistic regression model comparing faculty whose self-rated academic productivity increased with those whose productivity decreased, the authors found that controlling for multiple factors, men were more than twice as likely to be in the accelerated productivity group as women. In a similar model comparing partnered faculty whose self-rated work-life balance increased with partnered faculty whose work-life balance decreased, being in the positive work-life balance group was predicted by increased academic productivity, increased job stress, and having higher job priority than your partner. Conclusions: While the COVID-19 pandemic placed huge stressors on academic medical faculty, pandemic placed huge stressors on academic medical faculty, some experienced gains in productivity and work-life balance, with potential to widen the gender gap. As academic medicine evolves post-COVID, leaders should be aware that productivity and work-life balance predict each other, and that these factors have connections to work location, stress, and relationship dynamics, emphasizing the inseparable connections between work and life success.

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to limit medical students' full reintegration into clinical learning environments, thus exacerbating an ongoing challenge in identifying a robust number of clinical educational activities at excellent clinical sites for all students. Because medical students across the United States were removed from direct patient care activities in mid-March 2020 due to COVID-19, medical centers have prioritized and implemented changes to the process of patient care. As some barriers are being lifted in the face of a highly contagious and deadly infection, the use of telehealth (delivery of health services remotely via telephone, video, and secure messaging), although not new, is rapidly expanding into all aspects of patient care. Health care providers have been encouraged to conduct many interactions at a physical distance. Telehealth largely replaced face-to-face visits for nonemergency care in an attempt to slow viral transmission while enabling physicians to continue to deliver patient education, manage acute and chronic illness, and nurture caring doctor-patient relationships. Health care providers, many of whom were initially reluctant to embrace telehealth technology and logistics, are becoming nimbler and more aware of the many positive aspects of telehealth. The authors suggest that integrating medical students into telehealth activities would help maintain and improve patients' health, extend the capabilities of health care teams and systems during and after the pandemic, and increase medical students' opportunities for experiential learning and professional identity formation. The authors expand on these 3 goals, suggest several concrete student telehealth activities, propose a curricular strategy, and outline opportunities to overcome key barriers to full alignment of telehealth and undergraduate medical education., (Copyright © 2021 by the Association of American Medical Colleges.)

Objective: To validate an approach to measuring professional identity formation (PIF), we explore if the Professional Identity Essay (PIE), a stage score measure of medical professional identity (PI), predicts clinical communication skills., Methods: Students completed the PIE during medical school orientation and a 3-case Objective Structured Clinical Exam (OSCE) where standardized patients reliably assessed communication skills in 5 domains. Using mediation analyses, relationships between PIE stage scores and communication skills were explored., Results: For the 351 (89%) consenting students, controlling for individual characteristics, there were increases in patient counseling (6.5%, p<0.01), information gathering (4.3%, p = 0.01), organization and management (4.1%, p = 0.02), patient assessment (3.6%, p = 0.04), and relationship development (3.5%, p = 0.03) skills for every half stage increase in PIE score. The communication skills of lower socio-economic status (SES) students are indirectly impacted by their slightly higher PIE stage scores., Conclusion: Higher PIE stage scores are associated with higher communication skills and lower SES., Practice Implications: PIE predicts critical clinical skills and identifies how SES and other characteristics indirectly impact future clinical performance, providing validity evidence for using PIE as a tool in longitudinal formative academic coaching, program and curriculum evaluation, and research., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest Adina Kalet, the corresponding author, Hyuksoon Song, Lynn Buckvar-Keltz, Victoria Harnick, Sandra Yingling, Rafael Rivera, Linda Tewksbury, Ruth Crowe and Penelope Lusk have no financial or other conflicts of interest. Tavinder Ark is renumerated for conducting the data analysis and Verna Monson is renumerated for time spent providing a PIE stage score and individualized written feedback to our students., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: The Satisfaction With Life Scale adapted for Children (SWLS-C) is a self-report measure of children's quality of life and has exhibited sound psychometric properties. In light of increasing ethno-cultural diversity, it is important to understand child life satisfaction across diverse subgroups. Employing children's language background as a proxy for cultural background among children in British Columbia, Canada, we examined (a) the cross-cultural measurement equivalence of the SWLS-C; and (b) cross-cultural relations of peer support and adult support with SWLS-C., Methods: Participants were 20,119 children (M age 9.2; 50.2% boys) who provided data as part of a self-report child health survey (the Middle-years Development Instrument). Measurement equivalence across eight language/cultural background groups was tested via multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. Multi-level analyses were used to compare: a) SWLS-C means; and b) associations of peer support and adult support with SWLS-C scores, by language/cultural background., Results: Findings supported strict measurement equivalence between the English language/cultural background group and all other language/cultural background groups for the SWLS-C. Relative to the English language background group, SWLS-C means differed for several language/cultural background groups. Within every language/cultural background group, however, peer and adult support scale scores were significant positive correlates of SWLS-C scores., Conclusions: This study provided evidence for measurement equivalence of a life satisfaction measure across children from diverse language/cultural backgrounds and identified between-group differences in the level of child life satisfaction that were generally consistent with prior theory and findings. Moreover, results provided evidence of promotive associations of adult support and peer support with life satisfaction among diverse groups of children.

This paper examined measurement invariance (MI), both across gender and over time, of the Satisfaction With Life Scale adapted for Children (SWLS-C). Adapted from the adult SWLS, the SWLS-C is a self-report measure for children and adolescents to assess their life satisfaction. The sample comprised elementary school students in British Columbia, Canada (n = 4,026) who responded to the SWLS-C in Grade 4 (M(age) = 9.3, SD = 0.6; 48.9% girls) and approximately 3 years later in Grade 7. We examined MI regarding gender, time, and both gender and time (i.e., interactional invariance) using Clustered Repeated Measures Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis with a mean- and variance-adjusted weighted least squares (WLSMV) estimation. Residual invariance by gender was supported at Grades 4 and 7; scalar invariance was supported longitudinally for each gender and overall. In the "interactional" model, including gender and time, analyses indicated scalar MI, but not residual MI. Analyses of latent factor means indicated that SWLS-C scores significantly decreased for both girls and boys from Grade 4 to Grade 7. The decrease was more pronounced for girls, but gender differences at either age were not significant. The pattern of observed mean scores differed, as it indicated no significant decrease for boys' SWLS-C scores, but significant gender differences at both time points. However, given the lack of residual invariance, comparisons of observed SWLS-C mean scores across gender and over time may be compromised. The different results for latent and observed mean SWLS-C scores highlight the importance of routinely conducting MI analyses for group comparisons. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

This article was migrated. The article was marked as recommended. Professional Identity Formation (PIF), the process of internalizing a profession's core values and beliefs, is an explicit goal of medical education. The Professional Identity Essay (PIE), a developmental measure of the extent to which individuals have a complex and self-defined understanding of their professional role, is a tool to both study and scaffold PIF. PIE staging has internal reliability and response process validity and correlates with a validated measure of moral reasoning. In this study, we investigate whether PIF, as measured by PIE, changes during pre-clerkship training. Medical students in the class of 2019 completed the PIE during orientation to medical school (PIE#1) and 15 months later, during orientation to clerkships (PIE#2), to the same prompts. These written responses are PIF-staged by an expert rater. On average, PIF scores reveal that 46% of the group remained at the same stage as they were on entry to medical school, 42% scored at a higher stage of PIF, and 15% of students scored at a lower stage of PIF after pre-clerkship training. This result suggests that medical students are heterogeneous with respect to the development of their medical PIF early in medical school training., (Copyright: © 2018 Kalet A et al.)

Objectives: Early identification of distinct patterns of child social-emotional strengths and vulnerabilities has the potential to improve our understanding of child mental health and well-being; however, few studies have explored natural groupings of indicators of child vulnerability and strengths at a population level. The purpose of this study was to examine heterogeneity in the patterns of young children's social and emotional health and investigate the extent to which sociodemographic characteristics were associated., Design: Cross-sectional study based on a population-level cohort., Setting: All kindergarten children attending public schools between 2004 and 2007 in British Columbia (BC), Canada., Participants: 35 818 kindergarten children (age of 5 years) with available linked data from the Early Development Instrument (EDI), BC Ministry of Health and BC Ministry of Education., Outcome Measure: We used latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify distinct profiles of social-emotional health according to children's mean scores across eight social-emotional subscales on the EDI, a teacher-rated measure of children's early development. Subscales measured children's overall social competence, responsibility and respect, approaches to learning, readiness to explore, prosocial behaviour, anxiety, aggression and hyperactivity., Results: Six social-emotional profiles were identified: (1) overall high social-emotional functioning, (2) inhibited-adaptive (3) uninhibited-adaptive, (4) inhibited-disengaged, (5) uninhibited-aggressive/hyperactive and (6) overall low social-emotional functioning. Boys, children with English as a second language (ESL) status and children with lower household income had higher odds of membership to the lower social-emotional functioning groups; however, this association was less negative among boys with ESL status., Conclusions: Over 40% of children exhibited some vulnerability in early social-emotional health, and profiles were associated with sociodemographic factors. Approximately 9% of children exhibited multiple co-occurring vulnerabilities. This study adds to our understanding of population-level distributions of children's early social-emotional health and identifies profiles of strengths and vulnerabilities that can inform future intervention efforts., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Article author(s) (or their employer(s) unless otherwise stated in the text of the article) 2017. All rights reserved. No commercial use is permitted unless otherwise expressly granted.)

In this study, we examined whether perceived variety in exercise prospectively predicts unique variance in exercise behavior when examined alongside satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs (for competence, relatedness, and autonomy) embedded within self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2002), through the mediating role of autonomous and controlled motivation. A convenience sample of community adults (N = 363) completed online questionnaires twice over a 6-week period. The results of structural equation modeling showed perceived variety and satisfaction of the needs for competence and relatedness to be unique indirect positive predictors of exercise behavior (through autonomous motivation) 6 weeks later. In addition, satisfaction of the need for autonomy was found to negatively predict controlled motivation. Perceived variety in exercise complemented satisfaction of the needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy in predicting motivation and (indirectly) exercise behavior, and may act as a salient mechanism in the prediction of autonomous motivation and behavior in exercise settings.

Background: Failures of communication during the transfer of patient care errors., Methods: We created a new format for written sign-out material, based on aviation industry practice and cognitive psychology theory, designed to improve interns' and senior medical students' communication during transfers of patient care responsibility. We carried out a randomized, blinded, crossover trial, comparing a new, narrative, written sign-out report to a usual written sign-out. Thirty-two interns and fourth-year medical students rated their confidence across various clinical tasks and answered clinical questions regarding hypothetical patients presented to them in written, new, narrative sign-out compared with the customary format., Results: There was no statistical difference in confidence when interns and senior medical students received usual versus narrative sign-outs., Conclusions: Although a limited measure suggested some improvement in competence, the narrative format did not improve participants' self-rated confidence during patient-care transfer.

Background: Well-designed computer-assisted instruction (CAI) can potentially transform medical education. Yet little is known about whether specific design features such as direct manipulation of the content yield meaningful gains in clinical learning. We designed three versions of a multimedia module on the abdominal exam incorporating different types of interactivity., Methods: As part of their physical diagnosis course, 162 second-year medical students were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to Watch, Click or Drag versions of the abdominal exam module. First, students' prior knowledge, spatial ability, and prior experience with abdominal exams were assessed. After using the module, students took a posttest; demonstrated the abdominal exam on a standardized patient; and wrote structured notes of their findings., Results: Data from 143 students were analyzed. Baseline measures showed no differences among groups regarding prior knowledge, experience, or spatial ability. Overall there was no difference in knowledge across groups. However, physical exam scores were significantly higher for students in the Click group., Conclusions: A mid-range level of behavioral interactivity was associated with small to moderate improvements in performance of clinical skills. These improvements were likely mediated by enhanced engagement with the material, within the bounds of learners' cognitive capacity. These findings have implications for the design of CAI materials to teach procedural skills.

Background: The authors developed and evaluated an interactive, Web-based module to train medical students in screening and brief intervention (SBI) for unhealthy alcohol use., Methods: First-year students were randomized to module versus lecture. Change in knowledge, attitudes, and confidence were compared. Performance was assessed by objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) and analyzed by intention to treat and treatment received., Results: Of 141 consenting students, 64% (n = 90) completed an intervention (54% lecture vs. 70% Web assigned). Knowledge, confidence, and attitudes improved in both groups, with more improvement in Advise-Assist knowledge for Web students (14% vs. -3%, p = .003). Web students outperformed their lecture peers in both general communication (65% vs. 51% items well done, p = .004) and alcohol-specific tasks (54% vs. 41%, p = .021) on OSCE. Analysis by treatment received enhanced between-group differences., Conclusion: Use of a Web-based module to teach SBI is associated with greater knowledge gain and skills performance compared with a lecture covering similar content. The module provides an efficient means for training in this area., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To prepare to develop a medical school curriculum on substance abuse disorders (SADs), the authors conducted a review of the quality of the sparse published literature., Method: The authors searched MEDLINE (1950 through December 2008) using OVID, PsycINFO, and PubMed to identify all studies of SAD interventions targeted toward undergraduate medical students. Of the 1,084 studies identified initially, 31 reported sufficient data to allow the authors to evaluate quality using Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument (MERSQI) scores. The authors also determined the impact of the studies by considering three-year citation rate and journal impact factor. A detailed review of the literature provided data on contact hours and intervention content., Results: The three-rater intraclass correlation coefficient for total MERSQI score was 0.82 (95% confidence interval: 0.70-0.90). The mean MERSQI score was 10.42 of a possible 18 (SD 2.59; range: 6.33-14.83). MERSQI scores were higher for more recently published studies and correlated with three-year citation rate but not impact factor. The mean contact time for 26 studies was 29.25 hours (range: 0.83-200 hours)., Conclusions: The literature provides a variety of educational methods to train medical students in SAD detection and intervention skills. This literature is of variable quality and provides limited guidance for development of curricula and medical education policy. Better methods of curriculum evaluation and publication guidelines would help ensure that this literature has a positive impact on educational practice and public health.

Researchers lack the rich evidence base and benchmark patient outcomes needed to evaluate the effectiveness of medical education practice and guide policy. The authors offer a framework for medical education research that focuses on physician-influenced patient outcomes that are potentially sensitive to medical education. Adapting the concept of ambulatory care sensitive conditions, which provided traction to health services research by defining benchmark patient outcomes to measure health system performance, the authors introduce the concept and propose the adoption of educationally sensitive patient outcomes and suggest two measures: patient activation and clinical microsystem activation. They assert that the ultimate goal of medical education is to ensure that measurement of future physicians' competence and skills is based not only on biomedical knowledge and critical clinical skills but also on the ability to translate these competencies into effective patient- and systems-level outcomes. The authors consider methodological approaches and challenges to measuring such outcomes and argue for large, multiinstitutional, prospective cohort studies and the development of a national Database for Research in Education in Academic Medicine to provide the needed infrastructure. They advocate taking the next steps to establish an educational evidence base to guide the academic medical centers of the 21st century in aligning medical education practice with health care delivery that meets the needs of individuals and populations.

As part of the development of a curriculum for medical students and rehabilitation residents at New York University School of Medicine, an Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) station was developed for formative evaluation. The goal was to determine the existing knowledge and competence of medical students and rehabilitation residents in the analysis and treatment of a geriatric patient with a history of falls. This OSCE station was designed to focus on three specific clinical skills needed in assessing the elderly faller. The OSCE station was a standardized patient (SP) encounter with a 75-year-old man presenting with falls. Seventy-five medical students and 41 rehabilitation medicine residents participated in the study. There was high agreement between the SP and a geriatric physician used to assess performance on gait (Cronbach alpha=0.918) and orthostatic blood pressure (Cronbach alpha=0.887) assessment. Of the medical students, 43.5% did not check orthostatic blood pressure, 56.8% did not evaluate gait, and 92.0% did not consider assistive device prescription. Only 20.0% checked both orthostatic blood pressure and gait. Likewise, 73.8% of residents did not check orthostatic blood pressure, 38.1% did not evaluate gait and 92.9% did not consider assistive device prescription. Only 19.0% checked both orthostatic blood pressure and gait. The results of this examination are alarming and suggest that education regarding the approach to an elderly person who falls is inadequate, leaving students and residents poorly prepared to take care of the "silver tsunami."

Objectives: Building on the advice of previous research to avoid parsing diagnostic strategies too finely, recent studies have shown that teaching novices to utilise analytic and non-analytic reasoning strategies yields higher diagnostic accuracy than teaching either in isolation. This study assesses the extent to which students spontaneously adopt a combined approach and compares its benefits with those experienced with a contrastive learning strategy known to enhance analogical transfer., Methods: A sample of 48 naïve students were trained to identify features on electrocardiograms (ECGs) and assign diagnoses. Half the participants learned in a standard manner, encountering diagnoses (and their associated features) in sequence. The remaining participants were explicitly instructed to draw comparisons between the diagnostic category being learned and another confusable diagnostic category (contrastive learning). Half the participants in both groups were further instructed to carefully identify all features while trusting guidance provided by feelings of familiarity (a combined reasoning strategy). The remaining participants were given no instructions on how to approach the diagnostic task., Results: Greater diagnostic accuracy was achieved following both contrastive learning and instructions to use a combined reasoning strategy relative to the control conditions. These variables did not interact with each other, nor did they interact with novelty of the test case. The effects were observed immediately after learning and following a 1-week delay., Discussion: The results emphasise the importance of explicitly empowering students to utilise multiple diagnostic strategies, including non-analytic approaches. In addition, this study reveals the benefit that can be gained from contrastive learning in a medical domain.

Purpose: There has been much debate in the medical education literature regarding the extent to which feature-driven and nonanalytic (similarity-based) reasoning strategies define expertise, but the relative value of teaching these strategies, together or in isolation, remains uncertain. The purpose of this study was to compare the diagnostic accuracy achieved upon receiving instruction to use each strategy in isolation to that of a combined approach., Method: In 2003-04, 48 undergraduate psychology students from McMaster University in Ontario, Canada, were taught to diagnose ten cardiac disorders (including normal) via electrocardiogram (ECG) presentation. Twelve students were instructed to carefully identify all features present before assigning a diagnosis (feature first). Twelve were given the same instruction with notice that some test ECGs had been seen during training (implicit combined). Twelve were simply instructed to trust familiarity and diagnose based on this impression (similarity-based). Finally, 12 students were given feature first and similarity-based instructions in combination (explicit combined)., Results: No difference in diagnostic accuracy was observed between the groups given the feature first (42%) and first impression (41%) instructions (p > .4), but the groups instructed to use both strategies (explicitly or implicitly) performed significantly better (56% and 53%, respectively; p < .01)., Conclusions: The results support an additive model of clinical reasoning in which instructions to be feature oriented and to trust similarity improve performance in novice diagnosticians.