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Introduction Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is a fruit-bearing species with a long history of cultivation in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Pomegranate production in Iran, as the main pomegranate producer in the world, is faced with different challenges. Fruit cracking is one of the serious disorders in pomegranate that cause significant reduction in the quality of fruit and subsequent economic damages to the pomegranate producers annually. Fruit cracking can be controlled to some extent by appropriate orchard management. Proper orchard fertilization is among the influential cases that can lead to the improvement in the physiological state of trees in favor of reducing the fruit cracking. Materials and methods In this study, the effects of silicon and potassium sulfate spraying were investigated on the fruit cracking and some quantitative and qualitative characteristics of pomegranate fruit. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the combined effects of four levels of silica (0, 100, 300, and 500 ppm) and three levels of potassium sulfate (0, 0.75%, and 1.5%) spraying on the fruit of pomegranate cv. 'Malase-Saveh', one of the most important pomegranate varieties of Iran. The treatments were applied three times during the growing season. The experiment was arranged in a factorial experiment based on the completely randomized block design in three replicates. Data analysis was performed using SAS statistical software and the means were compared using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% level of significance. Results and Discussion The results indicated that most of the qualitative and quantitative traits were influenced by foliar spraying of these substances. Also, the results indicated that foliar application of silica, potassium sulfate, and their interaction significantly affected the fruit cracking. According to the results, the lowest fruit cracking (2.64%) was obtained by spraying 500 ppm silica and 0.75% potassium sulfate, while the highest fruit cracking (27.87%) was recorded from control plants. The highest fruit weight (204 g) was recorded in the treatment of 1.5% potassium sulfate and the lowest fruit weight (144 g) was recorded from untreated plants. Most of the treatments had a positive effect on fruit and aril weight and increased this character compared to the control. Spraying with 500 ppm silica and 1.5% potassium sulfate resulted in the highest (39.69 g) 100 arils weight, while control plants had the lowest (29.14) 100 arils weight. Silica and potassium sulfate treatment also improve the total soluble solid and titratable acidity in the fruit juice of pomegranate. Conclusion The data obtained from this study could provide valuable insights into the effects of proper fertilization in reducing one of the main pomegranate disorders. Overall, the results indicated that combined spraying of silica (500 ppm) with potassium sulfate (1.5%) is more effective than their individual use and results in the higher fruit yield and quality, as well as a lower cracking disorder. These findings suggest that there are synergistic effects between these compounds. According to the results of this investigation simultaneous application of silica and potassium is suggested as a practical strategy in orchard management practices that could be beneficial for improving qualitative and quantitative attributes of pomegranate fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Litchi and longan are tropic/subtropic fruits harboring recalcitrant seeds that are covered with sugar-rich arils as the edible part. A rapid sugar content decline, called sugar receding, in the arils after the fruit maturation largely reduces the fruit quality, however, the mechanism is unclear. Litchi and longan fruits grow and mature in a hot and rainy season with dry spells between rainfalls. Here, we found that the seed maturation was around 2 weeks earlier than the fruit maturation, after which the sugar contents of the arils significantly decreased, while the fruits could stay on the tree for 1–2 months with high seed vigor. A continuously low-level fruit drop after the seed maturation resulted in continuous seed germination and seedling establishment in around 2–3 months. Blocking assimilate supply by storage of detached fruits or on-tree girdling-plus-defoliation for 7 days, the aril sugar contents of the treated fruits significantly decreased, while the sugar levels and vigor of the seeds increased, implying that the arils are sugar sources to maintain or even enhance the seed vigor and suggesting that sugar receding in arils benefits the recalcitrant seeds of litchi and longan to cope with dry spells after maturation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this comprehensive exploration of Punica granatum, the investigation delves into the alterations of physicochemical parameters, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant capacity across various anatomical segments of four distinct pomegranate cultivars cultivated in Sri Lanka (cv. ''Nayana,'' ''Kalpitiya Hybrid,'' ''Nimali,'' and ''Daya'') at four discrete stages of maturity, namely one month (immature), two months (semi -mature), three months (mature), and four months (ripen) after fruit set. The Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) was measured using a Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assay. Concurrently, Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and Total Flavonoid Content (TFC) were analyzed using the modified Folin- Ciocalteu method, and the colourimetric method, respectively. Results revealed that all parts of all tested varieties contain a significant amount of TAC, TPC, and TFC. Among tested cultivars, physicochemical parameters were increased from immature through semi-mature to ripened fruit, being maximum at this stage except for Titratable acidity (TA), and it significantly declined with the advancing fruit maturity. The content of bioactive compounds of four tested cultivars was varied as Nimali>Daya>Nayana>Kalpitiya hybrid, respectively. Since immature fruits of tested pomegranate cultivars contain many bioactive molecules, using immature fruits in traditional medicine has been scientifically validated and could be recommended for value-added nutraceutical production.

The present study deals with the comparative extraction techniques of ellagitannins from pomegranate rind to get higher extraction efficiency for the purpose of waste valorization. Extraction techniques followed the trend high-speed homogenization (2.08%) > ultrasonic-assisted extraction (1.71%) > microwave-assisted extraction (1.40%) > Soxhlet (1.31%) > enzyme-assisted extraction (0.95%) in terms of punicalin equivalent yield. Being green technique, ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) was further optimized by using response surface methodology (RSM). Yield of ellagitanins was maximized to 3.04% in terms of punicalin equivalent yield for UAE using RSM, which is significantly higher than conventional Soxhlet extraction method (1.71%) using optimized conditions. The LC-HRMS analysis found that Punicalin A and B were the major ellagitannins present in the purified extract apart from the hexose sugar of ellagic acid. Ellagitannin-rich extract was evaluated for their antioxidant activity by DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays, and the IC50 values ranged between 4.9–29.2 and 25.4–32.9 for the crude and purified ellagitannin, respectively. In silico analysis revealed good binding capacity of ellagic acid with catalase. Polyphenols from pomegranate rind have strong potential for industrial utilization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this review, we report on harvestmen and spiders feeding on fungi, fruits, and seeds. Fungivory in harvestmen is widespread, with most reports referring to tropical species in the family Sclerosomatidae, which consume mainly small forest mushrooms (families Marasmiaceae and Mycenaceae). In contrast, consumption of fungal material by spiders apparently occurs only if airborne spores trapped in the viscid threads of orb-webs (e.g., Araneidae and Tetragnathidae) are ingested along with old webs prior to the construction of new webs. Consumption of fruit pulp by harvestmen is also widespread, with several records of Leiobunum spp. (Sclerosomatidae) feeding on Rubus spp. berries and other lipid-poor fruits in the Holarctic region. In Neotropical forests, harvestmen in the families Cosmetidae and Gonyleptidae feed on lipidpoor pulp of fallen fruits. Among spiders, we document several cases of synanthropic species opportunistically feeding on fruit waste (e.g., pieces of banana, papaya, watermelon, or orange pulp) inside houses or disposed in yards. Only one case of a spider feeding on a wild fruit in the field was found in our search. Finally, we report several cases of harvestmen and spiders feeding on elaiosomes or arils (i.e., lipid-rich seed appendages). In conclusion, harvestmen consume mushrooms, fruit pulp, seeds, and seed appendages more frequently than spiders probably because they are "solid food feeders", which means they can ingest solid tissues by biting off small pieces. In turn, spiders are "fluid feeders" and feed on vegetable matter most frequently in the form of fluids (e.g., nectar, stigmatic exudate, plant sap, and honey dew), rather than fungal or plant tissues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Litchi and longan are tropic/subtropic fruits harboring recalcitrant seeds that are covered with sugar-rich arils as the edible part. A rapid sugar content decline, called sugar receding, in the arils after the fruit maturation largely reduces the fruit quality, however, the mechanism is unclear. Litchi and longan fruits grow and mature in a hot and rainy season with dry spells between rainfalls. Here, we found that the seed maturation was around 2 weeks earlier than the fruit maturation, after which the sugar contents of the arils significantly decreased, while the fruits could stay on the tree for 1–2 months with high seed vigor. A continuously low-level fruit drop after the seed maturation resulted in continuous seed germination and seedling establishment in around 2–3 months. Blocking assimilate supply by storage of detached fruits or on-tree girdling-plus-defoliation for 7 days, the aril sugar contents of the treated fruits significantly decreased, while the sugar levels and vigor of the seeds increased, implying that the arils are sugar sources to maintain or even enhance the seed vigor and suggesting that sugar receding in arils benefits the recalcitrant seeds of litchi and longan to cope with dry spells after maturation.

Nephelium hypoleucum Kurz is an evergreen tree in the Sapindaceae family, mostly found in the forests of some Southeast Asia countries, especially Thailand. The lack of biological information regarding this tree has led to inappropriate agricultural management, conservation and utilization. Thus, this study aims to examine the nutritional composition, organic acid and phenolic profiles and in vitro health properties through several key enzyme inhibitions against some civilization diseases including Alzheimer's disease (β-secretase (BACE-1), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)), obesity (lipase), hypertension (angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)) and diabetes (dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV), α-amylase and α-glucosidase) on the aril (flesh) part of N. hypoleucum Kurz fruit. The remaining fruit parts including the pericarp (peel) and seed were also assessed as sources of potential phenolics as well as key enzyme inhibitors. As results, carbohydrate (17.18 g) was found to be a major source of energy (74.80 kcal) in the aril (100 g fresh weight), with trace amounts of protein (0.78 g) and fat (0.32 g). The fruit aril also contained high insoluble dietary fiber (5.02 g) and vitamin C (11.56 mg), while potassium (215.82 mg) was detected as the major mineral. Organic acid profile indicated that the aril was rich in citric acid, while the phenolic profile suggested predominant quercetin and kaempferol. Interestingly, high gallic acid contents were detected in both pericarp and seed, with the latter 3.2-fold higher than the former. The seed also possessed the highest total phenolic content (TPC, 149.45 mg gallic acid equivalent/g dry weight), while total anthocyanin content (TAC, 0.21 mg cyanidin-3-O-glucoside equivalent/g dry weight) was only detected in pericarp. High TPC also led to high enzyme inhibitory activities in seed including BACE-1, AChE, BChE, ACE, DPP-IV and α-glucosidase. Interestingly, aril with the highest α-amylase inhibition suggested strong inhibitory distribution, predominantly from quercetin and kaempferol. Lipase inhibitory activities were only detected in the aril and pericarp, suggesting the biological function of these two phenolics and possibly anthocyanins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

escription of the subject. In the Messaad region, in central Algeria, pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is one of the main fruit crops in agricultural systems after apricot. Objectives. To explore cultivar diversity, a study of the morphological variability of pomegranate fruits and seeds was carried out on the fruits of seven pomegranate cultivars; Khadraye KH1, Hamraye HM1, Senin Alouj SL1 from Messaad orchards, AM2 (Amourah) from Amourah orchards, Khadraye KH3, Mezabi MZ3, Senin Alouj SL3 from Zaccar orchards. Method. Analysis of variance (ANOVA), a principal Component Analysis (PCA) followed by an Ascending Hierarchical Classification (AHC) based on quantitative morphological parameters are used. Results. The results show similarities between classes according to which four main classes were grouped. The first class C1 consists of two cultivars (KH1 and SL1 of Messaad), while the second class C2 consists of one cultivar, HM1of Messaad. The third class C3 consists of the very characteristic Romane Amourah (AM2) and the fourth and last class C4 includes all cultivars of the third station of Zaccar. The evaluation of the qualitative characteristics of color and taste of the fruit by a panel of amateur tasters reveals significant dissimilarities and similarities. Conclusions. The results presented in this work clearly justify the variability and its interest in the preservation, exploitation and valorization of this genetic material, and for improving cultivated varieties of pomegranate that show appreciable economic performances.

The genus Euonymus (L.) consists of shrubs and woody plants, distributed mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. Several hundred of secondary metabolites have been isolated from Euonymus spp. In addition, fatty oil was found in the fruits of some Euonymus spp., which accumulates not only in the seeds but also in the arils. This study presents the research of unique over ten-year-old suspension cell cultures of the endemic plant Euonymus maximoviczianus Prokh., obtained from the aril tissue of unripe capsules. The suspension cells retain the ability to form oil droplets containing neutral lipids. Both cells growing in the dark (Em-D culture) and cells growing in the light (Em-L culture) can synthesize very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) as well as cyanidin-3- O -hexoside, delphinidin-3- O -hexoside, and peonidin-3- O -hexoside. Here, we researched the VLCFA and anthocyanin accumulation dynamics during subcultivation, as well as the influence of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and light on these processes. In the darkness, the formation of VLCFAs was more intense, while the biosynthesis of anthocyanins was significantly activated in the light. In Em-L cells, more than 76% of anthocyanins were represented by cyanidin-3- O -hexoside, and in Em-D cells delphinidin-3- O -hexoside was more actively synthesized (45%). MeJA substantially enhanced the accumulation of anthocyanins (especially in the light) and, surprisingly, the formation of VLCFAs in both Em-L and Em-D cell cultures. The possible competition between the biosynthetic pathways of VLCFAs and anthocyanins is discussed in connection with the commonality of the cytosolic pool of their precursor, malonyl-CoA. [Display omitted] • Cell cultures of Euonymus maximoviczianus accumulate TAGs, VLCFAs, and anthocyanins. • Biosynthetic properties have been preserved for more than ten years. • MeJA and light favors anthocyanin biosynthesis; MeJA and darkness favors VLCFAs. • Competition for malonyl-CoA between anthocyanins and VLCFAs is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sucrose synthase (SUS, EC 2.4.1.13) is widely considered as a key enzyme involved in plant sucrose metabolism, and the gene family encoding different SUS isozymes has been identified and characterized in several plant species. However, to date scant information about the SUS genes is available in Litchi chinensis Sonn. Here, we identified five SUS genes in litchi. These LcSUSs shared high levels of similarity in both nucleotide and amino acid sequences. Their gene structure, phylogenetic relationships, and expression profiles were characterized. Gene structure analysis indicated that the LcSUSs have similar exon-intron structures. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the five members could be classified into three groups (LcSUS1 and LcSUS2 in SUS II, LcSUS4 and LcSUS5 in SUS III, and LcSUS3 in SUS I), demonstrating evolutionary conservation in the SUS family across litchi and other plant species. The expression levels of LcSUSs were investigated via real-time PCR in various tissues and different developmental stages of aril. For tissues and organs, LcSUSs exhibited distinct but partially redundant expression profiles in litchi, being predominantly expressed in young leaves (sink). During aril development, the expression pattern of LcSUS1 was consistent with the trend of sugar accumulation, indicating it may play important roles in determination of sink strength in aril. Moreover, transcript levels of LcSUS2, LcSUS4, and LcSUS5 varied between cultivars with different hexose/sucrose ratios, which may regulate the sugar composition in aril. Our results provide insights into physiological functions of SUS genes in litchi, especially roles in regulating sugar accumulation in aril.

The diversification of Tiliacoreae and the speciation of Eleutharrhena are closely linked to Southeast Asia's most northerly rainforests which originate from the Himalayan uplift. Migration routes across biogeographical zones within the Asian clade, including those of Eleutharrhena, Pycnarrhena, and Macrococculus, and their population structures are still unexplored. We combine endocarp morphology, phylogenetic analyses, divergence time estimation, ancestral area reconstruction, as well as SCoT method to reconstruct the past diversification of Eleutharrhena macrocarpa and to understand their current distribution, rarity, and evolutionary distinctiveness. The disjunct, monospecific, and geographically restricted genera Eleutharrhena and Macrococculus both have a dry aril, a unique feature in Menispermaceae endocarps that further confirms their close relationship. Pycnarrhena and Eleutharrhena appeared during the end of the Oligocene c. 23.10 million years ago (Mya) in Indochina. Eleutharrhena speciation may be linked to climate change during this time, when humid forests became restricted to the northern range due to the Himalayan uplift. Differentiation across the Thai–Burmese range could have contributed to the isolation of the Dehong populations during the Miocene c. 15.88 Mya, when exchange between India and continental Asia ceased. Dispersal to the Lanping–Simao block and further differentiation in southeastern and southern Yunnan occurred during the Miocene, c. 6.82 Mya. The specific habitat requirements that led to the biogeographic patterns observed in E. macrocarpa contributed to a low genetic diversity overall. Population 1 from Dehong, 16 from Pu'er, and 20 from Honghe on the East of the Hua line have a higher genetic diversity and differentiation; therefore, we suggest that their conservation be prioritized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information on the reproductive anatomy in genera of the tribe Naucleeae, particularly Cephalanthus, is scarce and fragmented. Of the six species in the genus, only the mature megagamethophyte of Cephalanthus occidentalis has been described. This study aims to provide information on embryological aspects in flowers of C. glabratus and to analyze the morphology and anatomy of the flowers, fruit, and seed in the six species of the genus. Cephalanthus glabratus have imperfect flowers: pistillate (PF) and staminate (SF). In the PF, the ovules are functional, while in the SF, they atrophy during the formation of the embryo sac. The mature ovule has a single integument, corresponds to the Phyllis type and the embryo sac is a Polygonum type, forming only in the PF. The presence of pollenkitt and secondary presentation of pollen were observed in the SF, as well as in the pollen formation previously described, whereas in the PF, they are absent, due to the collapse of the pollen grains inside the indehiscent anthers. The analysis of the ontogeny of the ovular excrescence in C. glabratus determined its funicular origin, calling it an aril. Its development is a pre-anthesis event, initiated during megasporogenesis. In seeds, the aril is a fleshy, white appendage which almost completely envelops the seeds of Cephalanthus, except for Cephalanthus natalensis where it is noticeably more reduced. Studies of the fruit in Cephalanthus species indicate that the infructescence is a dry schizocarp which separates into uni-seminated mericarps, except in C. natalensis that has fleshy indehiscent fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The Rubiaceae tribe Psychotrieae sensu lato and its two largest genera, Psychotria L. and Palicourea Aubl., have been considered taxonomically controversial for a long time. We aimed to identify structural features of the ontogeny of the fruits and seeds with taxonomic potential for the tribe by using species of these two genera, and Rudgea jasminoides (Cham.) Müll.Arg. The samples were obtained from a herbarium and from Brazilian state parks, and sectioned by using a rotation microtome. The fruits were found to be derived from an inferior ovary, and were characterised by a fleshy mesocarp and sclerenchymatic sinuate pyrene. The seeds were pachychalazal and arillate. The fruit was classified as a pomaceous drupoid nuculanium. The investigation showed the utility of some fruit features to discriminate species. Our study also showed that ontogenetic features of fruits and seeds are very homogeneous in Palicourea and Psychotria , which supports the inclusion of both genera in the tribe Psychotrieae. Psychotria sensu lato , Rubiaceae, has a high diversity of characters, and has been the subject of taxonomic and systematic controversies among authors. The anatomical development of fruits can be employed in a taxonomical study of the group. Our results showed that the fruit features can be useful in species identification, but the structural similarity of the fruits among all the analysed species suggests the maintenance of the genera Palicourea and Psychotria within tribe Psychotrieae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Arils are found in fruits of various taxa. The main function of dry fruit's arils is to participate in the dissemination. This study is devoted the relationships of aril's morphology-anatomical structure with types of dissemination. Standard methods of light microscopy were used. Structure of the arils and other part of fruit is studied in mature fruits of 34 species Euonymus, Viola, Asarum, Euphorbia, Litchi. The arils of the studied plants differ in several characters: the degree of seed cover, the area of attachment to the seed, the strength of attachment to the seed, color, smell, morphological nature, texture, anatomical features, including the number of cells and the presence of reserve substances. seeds of the studied plants are distributed endozoochornic, synzoochoric, ornithochoric, myrmecochoric and ballistochoric. The main characters of aril, that determine successful endozoochoric and sinzoochoric dissemination are degree of seed cover, smell, nutrients, texture, area and strength of attachment; ornithochoric—degree of seed cover, color, nutrients, area and attachment strength; myrmecochoric: smell, nutrients, location, area and strength of attachment; ballistochoric—location, texture, the presence of thickenings of the cell walls. The primary attractants are the nutritional value of the arils and the presence of some substances. The secondary attractants for ornithochoric plants are the color of the arils and the degree of the seed, and for endozoochirnic and myrmecochoric plants—its smell. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Background Fresh Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis) fruit is rich in carotenoids, mainly β-carotene and lycopene, but these compounds are sensitive to degradation. Spray drying is used to encapsulate the sensitive β-carotene and lycopene with different materials. Only a few reports of using highly branched cyclodextrin (HBCD) have been published. Additionally, studies of β-carotene and lycopene losses in Gac powders during storage are limited. Therefore, the encapsulation of β-carotene and lycopene of Gac aril with HBCD by spray drying at different inlet temperatures were compared. The shelf life of β-carotene and lycopene during storage was also calculated. Methods The fresh Gac aril was separated and kept frozen before the experiment. Gac aril and water (1:5 w/v) were centrifuged at 8,000 g at 20 °C for 15 min using a high-speed centrifuge (Sorval; Dupont, Wilmington, DE, USA). The supernatant was filtered twice and concentrated until 15° Brix using a rotary evaporator (R-200; Buchi, Flawil, Switzerland). The mixture of concentrated aril extract and highly branched cyclodextrin at 5% (w/v) was dried at three inlet temperatures by a spray dryer (B-290; Buchi, Flawil, Switzerland) with drying air flow rate, compressor air pressure, and feed rate set at 473 L/h, 40 m3/h, and 3 mL/min, respectively . The physicochemical qualities, particle image morphology, and estimated storage time of β-carotene and lycopene were determined. Results Increased inlet temperatures of spray drying decreased the bulk density, β-carotene, and lycopene content of spray-dried powders significantly. The color values of dried powders had significant differences in yellowness (b*) and chroma, but not lightness (L*), redness (a*), and hue when the inlet temperature increased from 160 °C to 180 °C. The maximum reduction of β-carotene and lycopene observed during storage at 55 °C was 90.88% and 91.11% for 33 and 18 days. For β-carotene, the estimated shelf-life (retention of 50% of β-carotene) was 9.9, 48.4, and 91.6 days at 25 °C, 10 °C, and 4 °C. The shelf-life of lycopene was 26, 176, and 357 days at 25 °C, 10 °C, and 4 °C, respectively. HBCD could be potentially used as an encapsulating agent in spray-dried Gac aril, but the shelf-life of β-carotene and lycopene needs to be improved to be useful as a food ingredient.

The diversification of Tiliacoreae and the speciation of Eleutharrhena are closely linked to Southeast Asia’s most northerly rainforests which originate from the Himalayan uplift. Migration routes across biogeographical zones within the Asian clade, including those of Eleutharrhena, Pycnarrhena, and Macrococculus, and their population structures are still unexplored. We combine endocarp morphology, phylogenetic analyses, divergence time estimation, ancestral area reconstruction, as well as SCoT method to reconstruct the past diversification of Eleutharrhena macrocarpa and to understand their current distribution, rarity, and evolutionary distinctiveness. The disjunct, monospecific, and geographically restricted genera Eleutharrhena and Macrococculus both have a dry aril, a unique feature in Menispermaceae endocarps that further confirms their close relationship. Pycnarrhena and Eleutharrhena appeared during the end of the Oligocene c. 23.10 million years ago (Mya) in Indochina. Eleutharrhena speciation may be linked to climate change during this time, when humid forests became restricted to the northern range due to the Himalayan uplift. Differentiation across the Thai–Burmese range could have contributed to the isolation of the Dehong populations during the Miocene c. 15.88 Mya, when exchange between India and continental Asia ceased. Dispersal to the Lanping–Simao block and further differentiation in southeastern and southern Yunnan occurred during the Miocene, c. 6.82 Mya. The specific habitat requirements that led to the biogeographic patterns observed in E. macrocarpa contributed to a low genetic diversity overall. Population 1 from Dehong, 16 from Pu’er, and 20 from Honghe on the East of the Hua line have a higher genetic diversity and differentiation; therefore, we suggest that their conservation be prioritized.

Background. Fresh Gac (Momordica cochinchinensis) fruit is rich in carotenoids, mainly β-carotene and lycopene, but these compounds are sensitive to degradation. Spray drying is used to encapsulate the sensitive β-carotene and lycopene with different materials. Only a few reports of using highly branched cyclodextrin (HBCD) have been published. Additionally, studies of β-carotene and lycopene losses in Gac powders during storage are limited. Therefore, the encapsulation of β-carotene and lycopene of Gac aril with HBCD by spray drying at different inlet temperatures were compared. The shelf life of β-carotene and lycopene during storage was also calculated. Methods. The fresh Gac aril was separated and kept frozen before the experiment. Gac aril and water (1:5 w/v) were centrifuged at 8,000 g at 20 °C for 15 min using a high-speed centrifuge (Sorval; Dupont, Wilmington, DE, USA). The supernatant was filtered twice and concentrated until 15° Brix using a rotary evaporator (R-200; Buchi, Flawil, Switzerland). The mixture of concentrated aril extract and highly branched cyclodextrin at 5% (w/v) was dried at three inlet temperatures by a spray dryer (B-290; Buchi, Flawil, Switzerland) with drying air flow rate, compressor air pressure, and feed rate set at 473 L/h, 40 m3/h, and 3 mL/min, respectively. The physicochemical qualities, particle image morphology, and estimated storage time of β-carotene and lycopene were determined. Results. Increased inlet temperatures of spray drying decreased the bulk density, β-carotene, and lycopene content of spray-dried powders significantly. The color values of dried powders had significant differences in yellowness (b*) and chroma, but not lightness (L*), redness (a*), and hue when the inlet temperature increased from 160 °C to 180 °C. The maximum reduction of β-carotene and lycopene observed during storage at 55 °C was 90.88% and 91.11% for 33 and 18 days. For β-carotene, the estimated shelf-life (retention of 50% of β-carotene) was 9.9, 48.4, and 91.6 days at 25 °C, 10 °C, and 4 °C. The shelf-life of lycopene was 26, 176, and 357 days at 25 °C, 10 °C, and 4 °C, respectively. HBCD could be potentially used as an encapsulating agent in spray-dried Gac aril, but the shelf-life of β-carotene and lycopene needs to be improved to be useful as a food ingredient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus L.) is a much-branched deciduous shrub or small tree. Its fruit capsules contain seeds with remarkably high content of oil interesting for industry, especially the 3-acetyl-1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerols (AcDAG) synthesized by a specific acetyl-CoA diacylglycerol acetyltransferase. The distribution and amount of individual triacylglycerols (TAG) and especially acetyl-triacylglycerols (AcDAG) in Euonymus fruit have previously been assigned to specific tissues. Using anatomical and microscopical observations, we studied the fruit morphology, and for the first time, we identified a more detailed allocation of oil bodies in individual tissue structures. Thin layer chromatography separation of extracts from immature and mature fruits confirmed TAG and AcDAG as the most abundant lipid classes in both endosperm and embryo, followed by fatty acids and polar lipids. The abundance of fatty acids was further studied in the TAG and AcDAG fractions using gas chromatography. Data revealed particular FAs in both fractions allocated in tissue-specific manner and/or as indicators of maturation of E. europaeus seeds. While the abundance of cis-vaccenic-, linoleic as well as α-linolenic acids in the AcDAG structures generally drop with maturation in both embryo and endosperm, content of oleic acid increases. Abundance of cis-vaccenic acid in TAG was recorded in immature endosperm. For embryo, the abundance of stearic acid in AcDAG and oleic acid in TAG fraction was distinctive. Deeper understanding of underlying metabolic processes will be essential for targeted metabolic engineering and/or application for oilseed crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gelatin gummy jelly is a chewable snack with attractive synthetic colour and flavour. The use of natural carotenoid colourant, found in Gac aril or pulp, potentially benefits consumer health. The objectives of this study were to formulate gummy prototypes designed with varying levels of gelatin, sucrose, and glucose syrup, to vary the addition of whey protein concentrate (WPC) and freeze-dried (FD) Gac aril and pulp to the selected prototype, and to investigate changes in coloured WPC-mixed gelatin gummy during storage. The prototype containing gelatin, sucrose, and glucose syrup at 10, 50, and 40%, respectively, was selected based on its hardness, gumminess, and chewiness values. The addition of WPC (0.75%) to the selected prototype increased the values of hardness, springiness, and gumminess but reduced the values of cohesiveness and chewiness. Coloured WPC-mixed gelatin gummy with blends (0.5 g/100 g) of FD Gac aril and pulp at a ratio of 75:25 appeared yellow-orange and received the highest acceptance score. The quality of coloured WPC-mixed gelatin changed to a dull colour and a softer texture gel during storage. Therefore, Gac-coloured WPC-mixed gelatin gummy improvement for colour and texture qualities should be of concern for shelf-life stability.

Arils within seed fossils are rare in the geological record, especially during the Palaeozoic. Thus, in order to augment seed fossils research from the Paleozoic, we describe three new specimens from the Permian of Jinchang City, Gansu Province, Northwest China. This material includes one new species, Samaropsis jinchangensis Y. F. Hua et al B.N. Sun sp. nov., and two known species, Trigonocarpus ovatum and Cardiocarpus cordai. We describe the microstructure of S. jinchangensis sp. nov.; the testa cells of this taxon are irregular and arils are found enwrapping seeds. Taken in combination with modern botany, seed dispersal characteristics are also discussed in this paper as well as palaeoclimate responses. This study confirms that a degree of symbiosis between animals and plants must have existed during the Permian; at the same time, changes in climate include drought fluctuations superimposed on a warm and humid background. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Recently, pomegranate has established itself as a functional food of increasing interest, both economically and within the scientific community, which has generated a significant increase in publications focused mainly on its characteristics, benefits, and nutritional composition. However, despite those papers maintaining scientific rigor, failures and/or errors of interpretation are evidenced concerning basic botanical concepts regarding the pomegranate fruit. Given this, and as a way of contributing to the homogenization of knowledge, this short communication defines the concepts of "seed", "aril", and "testa" as specifically applied to the pomegranate fruit by recovering historical botanical publications. The literature studied showed incorrect usage of botanical terms regarding pomegranate parts. The pomegranate seed is the whole grain. It is composed of sarcotesta, sclerotized mesotesta, tegmen, nucela, and embryo with cotyledons, and constitutes the edible portion of this complex fruit called balausta. The whole pomegranate seed cannot be called aril, because it is exariled or without aril seed. • Pomegranate fruit publications have increased due to its nutraceutical properties. • Etymological errors about pomegranate fruit parts were identified. • The pomegranate seed is the whole grain and constitutes the edible part of the fruit. • The pomegranate seed is exarilate or without aril. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The individual aril characteristics of eight autochthonous pomegranate varieties (Lifanka, Bejnarija, Karamustafa, Ropkavac, Valandovska, LC, Zumnarija and Hicaz) from R. Macedonia were investigated using computer vision software methods. The great differences in the dimension of aril at the varieties were determined. The variety Lifanka is characterized with the greatest length (12.6 mm), width (9.5 mm) and mass (0.5 g) of the aril. Cross section aril area (61.1 mm 2) and perimeter (31.6 mm) indicate that the variety 'Hicaz' is characterized with the smallest aril. Investigation of the aril shape showed different level of asymmetry depending on the variety. Generally, the variety Hicaz is characterized with the most asymmetrical aril. Based on CIELab system of coloration, great differences in the aril colour were noted among the investigated pomegranate varieties. The variety Hicaz had the darkest coloration (L* 19.3; a* 13.1; b* 5.3). High correlation dependence between coloration and shape and mass was determined.

Field studies of myrmecochory (seed dispersal by ants) can benefit from the use of devitalised seeds, particularly where these studies may involve invasive plants or plants outside of their natural range. Here, we test three different methods of seed devitalisation – gamma irradiation (10.6 kGy over 9.1 h at 23.7–25.4 °C), heating (150 °C for 30 min) and freezing (submerged in liquid nitrogen for 10 min) – in three different Australian plants: Acacia longifolia, Acacia melanoxylon and Kennedia rubicunda. We further test their suitability post‐treatment as stimuli for use in field studies of myrmecochory. Gamma radiation and exposure to heat effectively inhibited germination, whereas freezing did not. The devitalisation treatments did not appear to affect the attractiveness of seeds to ants as there was no significant difference in daily collection rate of control seeds compared to devitalised seeds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Texture of pomegranate fruit and arils are the main quality attributes in the food process industries. In this study, the texture properties of pomegranate fruit and arils (cv. "Ashraf") at four different stage of maturity (88, 109, 124, and 143 days after full bloom) were evaluated using the puncture test (rupture force and rupture energy) and compression test (bioyield force, rupture energy, and young modulus). The tests showed that all studied textural parameters were sensitive textural parameters for distinguishing the maturity stages. Rupture force and rupture energy of pomegranate fruit were determined at top, middle, and bottom positions of the fruit. The results showed that compression load values of aril increased with advances in maturity stage of fruit, while puncture load values of fruit decreased. The textural properties of pomegranate fruit and arils exhibited a strong dependence (p < .05) on the degree of maturity at harvesting time. Also results showed that rupture force of three different studied positions of fruit was severely different. The highest and lowest values were observed at top and middle position, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to investigate the shelf life of arils and the changes in their biochemical compounds in nineteen Iranian pomegranate cultivars during storage. Fruits were harvested when commercially mature and the arils were removed, packaged and stored at 5 ± 1 °C, at 85-90% relative humidity in a cold room. Samples of the stored arils were examined for biochemical features in temporal checkpoints throughout a storage period that lasted for 35 days. By using the onset of decay as an index, the shelf life of arils varied among cultivars, ranging from 7 days to approximately 21 days. Considering the quality attributes of ready-to-eat arils at the beginning of the experiment, substantial variations were observed among the cultivars with regard to their titratable acidity (0.50-8.47%), total soluble solids (13-18.66 °Brix), DPPH radical scavenging activity (63-87.44%), Gallic-acid-equivalent (2.64-6.95 mg/ml) and ascorbic acid (12.21-75.09 mg/l). In general, the decay of arils gradually increased during storage, but several cultivars—which exhibited a very slow process of decay—contained the highest content of titratable acidity, Gallic-acid-equivalent and total soluble solids (since the signs of decay appeared on around the twenty-first day of storage). In addition, titratable acidity increased slightly by the end of storage, whereas the ascorbic acid content, total soluble solids and Gallic-acid-equivalent were cultivar-dependent and did not show consistent patterns of change during storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aims Fleshy structures that promote biotic dispersal by ingestion have evolved many times in seed plants. Within the yew family Taxaceae sensu lato (six genera, including Cephalotaxus), it remains controversial whether the characteristic fleshy structure surrounding the seed is interpreted as a novel outgrowth of the base of the ovule (i.e. an aril) or a fleshy seed coat that is entirely derived from the integument (i.e. a sarcotesta). This paper presents a detailed study of both wild-type and teratological seed cones of Pseudotaxus chienii, including morphology, anatomy and ontogeny. Methods Wild-type and teratological seed cones were investigated with the classical paraffin technique and subsequent astrablue/safranin staining and scanning electron microscopy. Key Results The wild-type seed cone of Pseudotaxus possesses a fleshy white aril that is cup-like and not entirely fused to the seed. In the teratological seed cones investigated, the aril was bilobed and consisted of two free halves. In both wild-type and teratological cones, the aril was initiated as two lateral primordia in a transverse plane, but in wild-type cones the two primordia became extended into a ring primordium, which grew apically, leading to the cup-like shape. The teratological seed cones lacked a ring primordium and the two lateral aril lobes remained free throughout their entire ontogeny, alternating with the scale-like leaves inserted below them on the same branch; in some cases, these leaves also became fleshy. Conclusions Based on the ontogeny and arrangement of the two fleshy aril lobes in the teratological seed cones of Pseudotaxus, we suggest that the typical aril of Taxaceae could be readily interpreted as a fused pair of strongly swollen leaves rather than a modified integument. Our investigations of the cup-like aril of Pseudotaxus demonstrate a similarity not only with other Taxaceae but also with relatively distantly related conifers such as Phyllocladus (Podocarpaceae). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS, EC 2.4.1.14) is a key enzyme that regulates sucrose biosynthesis in plants. SPS is encoded by different gene families which display differential expression patterns and functional divergence. Genome-wide identification and expression analyses of SPS gene families have been performed in Arabidopsis, rice, and sugarcane, but a comprehensive analysis of the SPS gene family in Litchi chinensis Sonn. has not yet been reported. In the current study, four SPS gene (LcSPS1, LcSPS2, LcSPS3, and LcSPS4) were isolated from litchi. The genomic organization analysis indicated the four litchi SPS genes have very similar exon-intron structures. Phylogenetic tree showed LcSPS1-4 were grouped into different SPS families (LcSPS1 and LcSPS2 in A family, LcSPS3 in B family, and LcSPS4 in C family). LcSPS1 and LcSPS4 were strongly expressed in the flowers, while LcSPS3 most expressed in mature leaves. RT-qPCR results showed that LcSPS genes expressed differentially during aril development between cultivars with different hexose/sucrose ratios. A higher level of expression of LcSPS genes was detected in Wuheli, which accumulates higher sucrose in the aril at mature. The tissue- and developmental stage-specific expression of LcSPS1-4 genes uncovered in this study increase our understanding of the important roles played by these genes in litchi fruits.

Seed development, germination and seedling establishment were compared between Strombocactus species, S. corregidorae, S. disciformis ssp. disciformis and S. disciformis ssp. esperanzae, emphasizing the origin and role of the seed appendage, which is present only in both S. disciformis subspecies. The development and morpho-anatomy of both seeds and seedlings were evaluated using standard light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Embryo and seed development proceeded similarly in all three taxa. However, we unequivocally demonstrate the funicular origin and aerenchymatic structure of the seed appendage, the aril in S. disciformis ssp. disciformis and S . disciformis ssp. esperanzae, which differentiates soon after fertilization. Other distinguishing features include the delayed growth of the testa in the micropyle in S. corregidorae , and testa micromorphology in mature seeds. Seed potential and production were similar between species, although seed efficiency was higher in both subspecies of S. disciformis , which may reflect pollination problems in S. corregidorae natural populations. Seed flotation occurs in the three taxa, due to the presence of air spaces in the lumen of the seed coat cells and the aril aerenchymatic, when present. Neither physiological nor structural dormancy were detected in Strombocactus, and a high percentage of seeds germinated in the different taxa, as no scarification or disinfection treatments were necessary. The absence of the aril in S. corregidorae shows that further genetic, phylogenetic and comparative ontogenic studies that include the three taxa of Strombocactus and the nearest genera, such as Ariocarpus , Turbinicarpus and Epithelantha , are required in order to determine if this structure was gained or lost during evolution of Strombocactus. This research provides a greater understanding of the reproductive biology of this endangered genus endemic to Mexico, necessary for the establishment of future restoration and conservation programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]