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Glucocorticoids play a physiologic role in the adult male reproductive functions, modulating gonadal steroid synthesis and spermatogenesis, through the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). The expression of GR has been described in several key testicular cell types, including somatic cells and early germ cell populations. Nothing is known on GR in human spermatozoa. Herein, we explored the GR expression and its possible role in normal and testicular varicocele semen samples from volunteer donors. After semen parameter evaluation by macro- and microscopic analysis, samples were centrifuged; then spermatozoa and culture media were recovered for further investigations. By western blotting and immunofluorescence analyses we evidenced for the first time in spermatozoa the presence of GR-D3 isoform which was reduced in sperm from varicocele patients. By treating sperm with the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone (DEXA), we found that survival, motility, capacitation, and acrosome reaction were increased in both healthy and varicocele samples. GR involvement in mediating DEXA effects, was confirmed by using the GR inhibitor mifepristone (M2F). Worthy, we also discovered that sperm secretes different cortisol amounts depending on its physio-pathological status, suggesting a defence mechanism to escape the immune system attach in the female genital tract thus maintaining the immune-privilege as in the testis. Collectively, our data suggests a role for glucocorticoids in determining semen quality and function, as well as in participating on sperm immune defensive mechanisms. The novelty of this study may be beneficial and needs to take into account in artificial insemination/drug discovery aimed to enhancing sperm quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Nitric oxide (NO) is a signaling molecule produced by intracellular nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes. This free radical appears to affect sperm capacitation, a maturation step preceding acrosome reaction. Recent studies have reported leptin ability to promote capacitation and acrosome reaction in pig male gametes. Methods This study has investigated nitric oxide production in leptin-treated pig spermatozoa by fluorescence-activated cell sorting, while the intracellular NOS isoforms were assessed by Western blot analysis. In addition, acrosome status of treated-spermatozoa was evaluated by FITC-PNA staining. Results Significant increases of nitric oxide levels and acrosome reaction extent were detected in leptin-treated spermatozoa, but both the effects were reversed in presence of L-NAME. Furthermore, the immunoblots of sperm extracts have evidenced three bands of ~160 Kd(bNOS), ~130 Kd (iNOS) and ~135 Kd (eNOS). Conclusions The identification of the three intracellular NOS isoforms suggests that pig spermatozoa could produce NO, while the augmented nitric oxide levels in leptin-treated male gametes indicates the capacity of the hormone to induce nitric oxide production. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of L-NAME and of Ab-ObR on the promotion of acrosome reaction triggered by leptin suggests a possible involvement of NO in the hormone action.

Abstract Background A wider biological role of 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3), the active metabolite of vitamin D3, in tissues not primarily related to mineral metabolism was suggested. Recently, we evidenced the ultrastructural localization the 1,25(OH)2D3 receptor in the human sperm. However, the 1,25(OH)2D3 action in human male reproduction has not yet been clarified. Methods and Results By RT-PCR, Western blot and Immunofluorescence techniques, we demonstrated that human sperm expresses the 1,25(OH)2D3 receptor (VDR). Besides, 25(OH)D3-1 alpha-hydroxylase, evidenced by Western blot analysis, indicated that in sperm 1,25(OH)2D3 is locally produced, highlighting the potential for autocrine-paracrine responses. 1,25(OH)2D3 through VDR, increased intracellular Ca2+ levels, motility and acrosin activity revealing an unexpected significance of this hormone in the acquisition of fertilizing ability. In sperm, 1,25(OH)2D3 through VDR, reduces triglycerides content concomitantly to the increase of lipase activity. Rapid responses stimulated by 1,25(OH)2D3 have been observed on Akt, MAPK and GSK3 implying that this secosteroid is involved in different sperm signalling pathways. Conclusion Our data extended the role of 1,25(OH)2D3 beyond its conventional physiological actions, paving the way for novel therapeutic opportunities in the treatment of the male reproduction disorders.

Abstract Background Androgens and estrogens are crucial for mammalian sperm differentiation but their role in biology of mature male gamete is not still defined. The expression of proteins involved in the biosynthesis and action of these steroid hormones has been demonstrated in human spermatozoa, but very few data have been reported in mature sperm from non human species. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the expression of aromatase (P450arom), estrogen (ERalpha/ERbeta) and androgen (AR) receptors in ejaculated spermatozoa of pig. Methods The immunfluorescence experiments were carried out treating pig sperm with anti-P450arom, anti-ERalpha, anti-ERbeta and anti-AR as primary antibodies, while Texas-Red/FITC conjugated IgG were applied as secondary antibodies. Furthermore, Western blot analysis was performed on sperm lysates. Results Aromatase was immunolocalized in the sperm tail, ERalpha and AR were localised in the sperm midpiece, while ERbeta was confined in the acrosomal region of the male gamete. Immunoblots detected a ~52 kDa aromatase band, a ~110 kDa AR band, a ~67 kDa ERalpha and two ERbeta bands, at ~50 kDa and ~59 kDa. Conclusion This is the first report demonstrating that pig ejaculated spermatozoa express aromatase, estrogen and androgen receptors with a differential intra-cellular localization revealing a specie-specific expression pattern. Therefore, pig sperm could be considered as a potential estrogen source while the different hormone cellular sites suggest distinct roles of androgens and estrogens in pig sperm physiology.

Abstract Background A key role of estrogens in human sperm biology has been recently suggested by aromatase and estrogen receptor detection in human testicular germ cells and ejaculated spermatozoa. However, the involvement of these hormones in the sperm maturation process is still not defined. The aim of this work was to investigate the expression of estrogen receptors, ER-alpha and ER-beta, in human ejaculated immature spermatozoa with excess residual cytoplasm. Methods Immunofluorescence labelling has been used to localize ER-alpha and ER-beta proteins in immature spermatozoa isolated by Percoll gradient, while Western blot analysis was carried out on sperm protein extracts. Results Both estrogen receptors were localized in excess residual cytoplasm of immature sperm, while sperm tails showed only ER-beta. Furthermore, in the same cells, immunoblots detected the presence of the full-length (~67 kDa) ER-alpha and (~59 kDa) ER-beta proteins, together with a ~50 kDa ER-beta species, lacking in mature sperm. Conclusion The present investigation demonstrated ER-alpha and ER-beta presence in excess residual cytoplasm of human abnormal sperm cells, suggesting the hypothesis that both the 'classical' ERs could be able to mediate estrogen action in spermatogenetic cells. Furthermore, the presence of the short ER-beta form in abnormal germ cells and its disappearance in mature sperm, support estrogen modulation via different ER forms during sperm maturation.