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La aportación principal del libro consiste en repensar la historia de la SdN a la luz desus conexiones con el mundo imperial. Como ya señalaron en su momento RobertGerwarth y Erez Manela, la Primera Guerra Mundial fue ante todo una guerra entre imperios,más que entre Estados-nación, en una cronología que fue más allá del canon1914-1918 y que sobrepasó el marco europeo hasta alcanzar una dimensión global.

This paper describes the demonstration of a regional high-resolution level-3 (L3) altimeter data unification and altimeter combination system (DUACS) developed with support from the French space agency (CNES). Deduced from full-rate (20 Hz to 40 Hz) level-2 (L2) altimeter measurements, this product provides sea level anomalies (SLA) and other essential physical variables at a spatial resolution of one sample every ~1 km over the North Atlantic Ocean. This allows us to resolve wavelengths from ~35 km to ~55 km depending on the altimeter considered. This was made possible by recent advances in radar altimeter processing for both synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and low-resolution-mode (LRM) measurements, as well as improvements made to different stages of the DUACS processing chain. Firstly, the new adaptive and low-resolution with range migration correction (LR-RMC) processing techniques were considered for Jason and Sentinel-3 (S3A), respectively. They significantly reduce errors at short wavelengths, and the adaptive processing also reduces possible land contamination near the coast. Next, up-to-date geophysical and environmental corrections were selected for this production. This includes specific corrections intended to reduce the measurement noise on LRM measurements and thus enhance the observability at short wavelengths. Compared with the 1 Hz product, the observable wavelengths reached with the demonstration high-resolution product are reduced by up to one third, or up to half in the northeast Atlantic region. The residual noises were optimally filtered from full-rate measurements, taking into consideration the different observing capabilities of the altimeters processed. A specific data recovery strategy was applied, significantly optimizing the data availability, both in the coastal and open ocean areas. This demonstration L3 product is thus better resolved than the conventional 1 Hz product, especially near the coast, where it is defined up to ~5 km against ~10 km for the 1 Hz version. Multi-mission cross-calibration processing was also optimized with an improved long-wavelength error (LWE) correction, leading to a better consistency between tracks, with a 9–15% reduction in SLA variance at cross-overs. The new L3 product improves the overall consistency with tide gauge measurements, with a reduction in SLA differences variance by 5 and 17% compared with the 1 Hz product from the S3A and Jason-3 (J3) measurements, respectively. Primarily intended for regional applications, this product can significantly contribute to improving high-resolution numerical model output via data assimilation. It also opens new perspectives for a better understanding of regional sea-surface dynamics, with an improved representation of the coastal currents and a refined spectral content revealing the unbalanced signal.

More than 29 years of altimeter data have been recently reprocessed by the multi-satellite Data Unification and Altimeter Combination System (DUACS) and made available under the name of DT2021 through the Copernicus Marine Service (CMEMS) and the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S). New standards have been applied and various geophysical correction parameters have been updated compared to the previous release in order to improve the product quality. This paper describes the assessment of this new release through the comparison of both the all satellites and the two satellites product with external in situ tide gauge measurements in the coastal areas of the European seas for a time period from 1 January 1993 to 31 May 2020. The aim is to quantify the improvements on the previous DT2018 processing version for the retrieval of sea level in the coastal zone. The results confirmed that the CMEMS product in the new DT2021 processing version better solves the signal in the coastal band. The all satellites dataset showed a reduction of 3 % in errors when compared with tide gauges and of 5 % in the variance of the differences between the datasets compared to DT2018 reprocessing. Moreover, the all satellites dataset provided more accurate sea level measurements when making a comparison with tide gauges with respect to the climatic two satellites dataset due to the better performance of the former for the assessment of higher than climatic frequency signals. By contrast, the two satellite dataset is the most suitable product for the assessment of long-term sea level sea surface height (SSH) trends in the coastal zone due to its larger stability to the detriment of the all satellites dataset.

This paper describes a high-resolution Level-3 (L3) altimeter Data Unification and Altimeter Combination System (DUACS) experimental regional product developed with support from the French space agency (CNES). Deduced from full rate (20 Hz to 40 Hz) Level-2 (L2) altimeter measurements, this product delivers Sea Level Anomalies (SLA) and other essential physical variables with a nearly 1-Km sampling over the North Atlantic 0cean. It allows us to resolve wavelengths from ~35 km to ~55 Km depending on the altimeter considered. This was made possible by recent advances in radar altimeter processing for both Synthetic aperture Radar (SAR) and Low-Resolution Mode (LRM) measurements, and improvements made to different stages of the DUACS processing chain. Firstly, the new adaptive and LR-RMC (Low Resolution with Range Migration Correction) processing techniques were considered for Jason and Sentinel-3 (S3A) respectively. They significantly reduce errors at short wavelengths and, for the adaptive processing, possible land contamination near the coast. Next, up-to-date geophysical and environmental corrections were selected for this production. This includes specific corrections intended to reduce the measurement noise on LRM measurement and thus enhance the observability at short wavelengths. Compared to the 1 Hz product, the observable wavelength reached with the experimental high-resolution product are reduced by up to one third, or up to half in the North-East Atlantic region. The residual noises were optimally filtered from full rate measurements taking into consideration the different observing capabilities of the altimeters processed. A specific data recovery strategy was applied, significantly optimizing the data availability both in the coastal and open ocean. This experimental L3 product is thus better resolved than the conventional 1 Hz product, especially near the coast where it is defined up to ~5 km against ~10 km for the 1 Hz version. The multi-mission cross-calibration processing was also optimized with an improved Long Wavelengths Error (LWE) correction leading to a better consistency between tracks with an 9–15 % reduction of SLA variance at cross-over. The experimental L3 product improves the overall consistency with tide gauge measurements with a reduction of the variance of the SLA differences by 5 and 17 % compared to the 1 Hz product from S3A and Jason-3 (J3) measurements respectively. Primarily intended for regional applications, this product can significantly contribute to improving high resolution numerical model outputs via data assimilation. It also opens new perspectives for a better understanding of regional sea surface dynamics, with an improved representation of the coastal currents and a refined spectral content that reveals the unbalanced signal.

Este artículo revisa la historiografía sobre la Sociedad de Naciones desde un período de relativo olvido, tras el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial hasta la expansión del interés por la organización iniciada en la década de 1990 y que continúa en el presente. El trabajo repasa los temas e interpretaciones que han interesado a los historiadores y las razones que explican la falta de interés durante la Guerra Fría y la explosión de publicaciones en los últimos años. El final del conflicto bipolar, el debate sobre la llamada globalización y las transformaciones en el campo historiográfico con el fuerte impacto de las aproximaciones globales y transnacionales y la renovación de la historia imperial explican en gran medida el creciente interés de los historiadores por la Sociedad de Naciones. Por último, el artículo se plantea brevemente la posible continuidad del boom historiográfico sobre la organización internacional. This article revises the historiography on the League of Nations from a period of relative oblivion, after the end of World War II, to the expansion of interest in the organization that began in the 1990s and continues today. The essay reviews the themes and interpretations that have interested historians and the reasons that explain the lack of interest during the Cold War and the explosion of publications in recent years. The end of the bipolar conflict, the debate on the so-called «globalization» and the transformations in the historiographic field with the strong impact of global and transnational approaches and the renewal of imperial history largely explain the growing interest of historians in the League of Nations. Finally, the article briefly raises the possible continuity of the historiographical boom on the international organization.

After the launch of the Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite planned for 2022, the region around the Balearic Islands (western Mediterranean Sea) will be the target of several in situ sampling campaigns aimed at validating the first available tranche of SWOT data. In preparation for this validation, the PRE-SWOT cruise in 2018 was conceived to explore the three-dimensional (3D) circulation at scales of 20 km that SWOT aims to resolve, included in the fine-scale range (1–100 km) as defined by the altimetric community. These scales and associated variability are not captured by contemporary nadir altimeters. Temperature and salinity observations reveal a front that separates local Atlantic Water in the northeast from recent Atlantic Water in the southeast, and extends from the surface to ~150 m depth with maximum geostrophic velocities of the order of 0.20 m s−1 and a geostrophic Rossby number that ranges between −0.24 and 0.32. This front is associated with a 3D vertical velocity field characterized by an upwelling cell surrounded by two downwelling cells, one to the east and the other to the west. The upwelling cell is located near an area with high nitrate concentrations, possibly indicating a recent inflow of nutrients. Meanwhile, subduction of chlorophyll-a in the western downwelling cell is detected in glider observations. The comparison of the altimetric geostrophic velocity with the CTD-derived geostrophic velocity, the ADCP horizontal velocity, and drifter trajectories, shows that the present-day resolution of altimetric products precludes the representation of the currents that drive the drifter displacement. The Lagrangian analysis based on these velocities demonstrates that the study region has frontogenetic dynamics not detected by altimetry. Our results suggest that the horizontal component of the flow is mainly geostrophic down to scales of 20 km in the study region and during the period analyzed, and should therefore be resolvable by SWOT and other future satellite-borne altimeters with higher resolutions. In addition, fine-scale features have an impact on the physical and biochemical spatial variability, and multi-platform in situ sampling with a resolution similar to that expected from SWOT can capture this variability., The PRE-SWOT experiment was funded by the Spanish Research Agency and the European Regional Development Fund (AEI/FEDER, UE) under Grant Agreement (CTM2016-78607-P). BB-L was supported by a postdoctoral contract in the framework of the EuroSea project that has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement No. 862626. This study is also a contribution to the SWOT Science Team (TOSCA-CNES VERSO and TOSCA-CNES BIOSWOT-AdAC project proposals) and to the EuroSea project (Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Grant Agreement No. 862626).

El sábado 8 de abril de 2017, en casa del poeta y sacerdote Hugo Mujica, se realizó esta entrevista de investigación con formato de diálogo socrático. Los contenidos de la misma sirven como fuente para el estudio que estoy realizando en torno a las poéticas del silencio y las prácticas artísticas contemporáneas dentro del Programa de Doctorado en Artes y Humanidades de la Universidad de Murcia, en la línea de Teología que desarrolla el Instituto Teológico de Murcia (OFM).

The main purpose of the present article is to present some reflections and doubts that have emerged during and after the Global History Conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 2016. For that purpose, the importance of the spatiality and temporality for the studies of the so-called "global turn" will be discussed and analyzed. Another point that will be discussed along this article is the impact of the globalization on the field of History and on its subfields. Finally, there will be a discussion on how Global History has been produced in Latin America and its similarities and differences with the Global History produced in Europe Resumo O principal objetivo do presente artigo é apresentar algumas reflexões e dúvidas que surgiram durante e após a Conferência Global de História realizada no Rio de Janeiro em 2016. Nesse sentido, a importância da espacialidade e da temporalidade para os estudos da chamada "virada global" será discutida e analisada. Outro ponto que será discutido ao longo do artigo é o impacto da globalização no campo da História e em seus subcampos. Finalmente, haverá uma discussão sobre o modo como a História Global tem sido escrita na América Latina e suas similaridades e diferenças com a História Global escrita na Europa. Resumen El propósito principal del presente artículo es presentar algunas reflexiones y dudas que han surgido durante y después de la Conferencia Global de Historia que se organizó en Río de Janeiro en 2016. Para este propósito, la importancia de la espacialidad y de la temporalidad para los estudios del llamado "giro global" será discutida y analizada. Otro punto que se discutirá a lo largo del artículo es el impacto de la globalización en el campo de la Historia y en sus subcampos. Por último, habrá un debate sobre la forma en que se escribe la Historia Global en América Latina y sus similitudes y diferencias con la Historia Global que se escribe en Europa.

For more than 20 years, the multi-satellite Data Unification and Altimeter Combination System (DUACS) has been providing near-real-Time (NRT) and delayed-Time (DT) altimetry products. DUACS datasets range from along-Track measurements to multi-mission sea level anomaly (SLA) and absolute dynamic topography (ADT) maps. The DUACS DT2018 ensemble of products is the most recent and major release. For this, 25 years of altimeter data have been reprocessed and are available through the Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) and the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S).Several changes were implemented in DT2018 processing in order to improve the product quality. New altimetry standards and geophysical corrections were used, data selection was refined and optimal interpolation (OI) parameters were reviewed for global and regional map generation.This paper describes the extensive assessment of DT2018 reprocessing. The error budget associated with DT2018 products at global and regional scales was defined and improvements on the previous version were quantified (DT2014; Pujol et al., 2016). DT2018 mesoscale errors were estimated using independent and in situ measurements. They have been reduced by nearly 3 % to 4 % for global and regional products compared to DT2014. This reduction is even greater in coastal areas (up to 10 %) where it is directly linked to the geophysical corrections applied to DT2018 processing. The conclusions are very similar concerning geostrophic currents, for which error was globally reduced by around 5 % and as much as 10 % in coastal areas., The DT2018 reprocessing exercise was supported by the CNES/SALP project and the CMEMS and C3S services funded by the European Union. Global L3 Sentinel-3 production is coordinated by EUMETSAT and funded by the European Union.

Este artículo contiene 30 páginas, 14 figuras., The Mediterranean community represented in this paper is the result of more than 30 years of EU and nationally funded coordination, which has led to key contributions in science concepts and operational initiatives. Together with the establishment of operational services, the community has coordinated with universities, research centers, research infrastructures and private companies to implement advanced multi-platform and integrated observing and forecasting systems that facilitate the advancement of operational services, scientific achievements and mission-oriented innovation. Thus, the community can respond to societal challenges and stakeholders needs, developing a variety of fit-for-purpose services such as the Copernicus Marine Service. The combination of state-of-the-art observations and forecasting provides new opportunities for downstreamservices in response to the needs of the heavily populatedMediterranean coastal areas and to climate change. The challenge over the next decade is to sustain ocean observations within the research community, to monitor the variability at small scales, e.g., the mesoscale/submesoscale, to resolve the sub-basin/seasonal and inter-annual variability in the circulation, and thus establish the decadal variability, understand and correct the model-associated biases and to enhance model-data integration and ensemble forecasting for uncertainty estimation. Better knowledge and understanding of the level ofMediterranean variability will enable a subsequent evaluation of the impacts and mitigation of the effect of human activities and climate change on the biodiversity and the ecosystem, which will support environmental assessments and decisions. Further challenges include extending the science-based added-value products into societal relevant downstream services and engaging with communities to build initiatives that will contribute to the 2030 Agenda and more specifically to SDG14 and the UN’s Decade of Ocean Science for sustainable development, by this contributing to bridge the science-policy gap. The Mediterranean observing and forecasting capacity was built on the basis of community best practices in monitoring and modeling, and can serve as a basis for the development of an integrated global ocean observing system.

Spatio-temporal variability of surface geostrophic mesoscale currents in the Balearic Sea (western Mediterranean) is characterized from satellite altimetry in combination with in-situ velocity measurements collected, among others, by drifting buoys, gliders and high-frequency radar. Here, we explore the use of tracking data from living organisms in the Balearic Sea as an alternative way to acquire in-situ velocity measurements. Specifically, we use GPS-tracks of resting Scopoli¿s shearwaters Calonectris diomedea, that act as passive drifters, and compare them with satellite-derived velocity patterns. Results suggest that animal-borne GPS data can be used to identify rafting behaviour outside of the breeding colonies and, furthermore, as a proxy to describe local sea surface currents. Four rafting patterns were identified according to the prevailing driving forces responsible for the observed trajectories. We find that 76% of the bird trajectories are associated with the combined effects of slippage and Ekman drift and/or surface drag; 59% are directly driven by the sea surface currents. Shearwaters are therefore likely to be passively transported by these driving forces while resting. The tracks are generally consistent with the mesoscale features observed in satellite data and identified with eddy-tracking software., The study was conducted in the framework of the CMEMS Sea Level Thematic Assembly Centre (SL-TAC) and partially supported by CNES (grant OSTST-MANATEE).

FDR’s policies, in particular the New Deal, became a sort of global brand, and created a transnational space of discussion. Many in the periphery, in particular in Latin America, appropriated the notion and labeled their own proposals as their own New Deals. These proposals produced an alternative international cooperative order, not necessarily the one wished by American elites. Latin America’s appropriation and reinterpretation of Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s message stirred controversies and disputes in the United States, within the liberal internationalist sectors, both in political positions and private actors. This article explores the reaction of certain U.S. liberal elites to the way Latin Americans appropriated and shaped international Rooseveltian ideas. It argues that some American internationalist elites feared that the way in which Latin Americans understood the New Deal and the Good Neighbor Policy might push development ideas abroad beyond the pale, as it might encourage the more radical stance of FDR administration at home, and it might jeopardize an American-led reorganization of the international order.

Observing the water transports through the Strait of Gibraltar is a difficult task. Here we present a methodology aimed to obtain the inflow, outflow and net transport of water from the limited set of available observations, currently consisting of an upward looking ADCP deployed at Espartel sill, two tide gauges located at each side of the Strait and radars monitoring the surface velocities. More precisely, we reconstruct the velocity field over a vertical section across the Strait using a reduced order optimal interpolation technique fed with the spatial covariance patterns deduced from high resolution numerical simulations. As a first step we carry out some sensitivity experiments with synthetic data that demonstrate the high potential of the approach. The reconstruction methodology can reproduce very satisfactorily the variability of the transports with estimated correlations for the inflow, outflow and net over 0.9 in all the cases and estimated RMS errors of 0.03, 0.08 and 0.05 Sv, respectively. However, we have also found that the reconstruction is sensible to bias problems, mostly due to the sensitivity of the method to the differences between the statistics of the actual and modeled velocity profiles. The sensitivity experiments have been used to tune the parameters of the method and a reconstruction of actual monthly transports has been performed for the period 2004–2010 along with an estimate of the associated uncertainty. This reconstruction provides for the first time a multiannual time series of the inflow and the net transports solely based on in situ observations. Therefore it can be used as an independent estimate for the validation of numerical models and surface freshwater fluxes in the Mediterranean.

We present data collected in the framework of the Algerian BAsin Circulation Unmanned Survey - ABACUS project. ABACUS main objective is the monitoring of the basin circulation and of the surface and intermediate water masses physical and biological properties in a key region of the Mediterranean Sea circulation. Data have been collected through deep glider cruises in the Western Mediterranean Sea during the autumns of 2014, 2015 and 2016. Glider missions were realized in the Algerian Basin, between the Island of Mallorca and the Algerian Coast. Across the three glider missions, eight repeated transects were obtained which enabled us to investigate the basin scale circulation and the presence of mesoscale structures utilising both the adaptive sampling capabilities of the gliders and the higher resolution of the data. After collection, all data passed a quality control procedure and were then made available through an unrestricted repository at https://doi.org/10.25704/b200-3vf5. The actual dataset spans three fall seasons, providing an important contribution to the data collection in the chronically undersampled Algerian Basin. Temperature and salinity data collected in the first 975 m of the water column allowed us to identify the main water masses and describe their characteristics improving the understanding of the dynamics of the region. On the time scale of the project, data show a large variability at the surface layer and reduced variability at the intermediate and deep layers. Our measurements have been successfully compared to data previously collected in the area from 1909 to 2011. Results showed similar overall distribution, ranges and variability as the historical data, with no outliers in the surface or deep layers.

International audience

This is the first multiplatform evaluation involving data from the new Sentinel-3A altimeter. An experiment was undertaken in the Algerian Basin, employing an ocean glider and a ship mission, along the same track and synchronous with an overpass of the Sentinel-3A mission. This provided three independent views of the ocean velocity field, along a section that encompassed three different oceanographic regimes. The results demonstrate the capacity of Sentinel-3A to retrieve fine-scale oceanographic features (~20 km). The intercomparison with in situ platforms showed a significant improvement, order 30% in resolution and 42% in velocity accuracy using a synthetic aperture radar mode with respect to lower-resolution mode of conventional altimetry. In addition, the three-platform view provided valuable insight into the variability of evolving oceanographic features, in an area of the Mediterranean that remains chronically under sampled.

In this work a simplified observing system simulation experiment (OSSE) approach is used to investigate which Argo design sampling in the Mediterranean Sea would be necessary to properly capture the mesoscale dynamics in this basin. The monitoring of the mesoscale features is not an initial objective of the Argo network. However, it is an interesting question from the perspective of future network extensions in order to improve the ocean state estimates. The true field used to conduct the OSSEs is provided by a specific altimetry-gridded merged product for the Mediterranean Sea. Synthetic observations were obtained by sub-sampling this “Nature Run” according to different configurations of the ARGO network. The observation errors required to perform the OSSEs were obtained through the comparison of sea level anomalies (SLAs) from altimetry and dynamic height anomalies (DHAs) computed from the real in situ Argo network. This analysis also contributes to validate satellite SLAs with an increased confidence. The simulation experiments show that a configuration similar to the current Argo array in the Mediterranean (with a spatial resolution of 2 2) is only able to recover the large-scale signals of the basin. Increasing the spatial resolution to nearly 75 km75 km, allows the capture of most of the mesoscale signal in the basin and to retrieve the SLA field with a RMSE of 3 cm for spatial scales larger than 150 km, similar to those presently captured by the altimetry. This would represent a theoretical reduction of 40% of the actual RMSE. Such a high-resolution Argo array composed of around 450 floats, cycling every 10 days, is expected to increase the actual network cost by approximately a factor of 6., The research leading these results has received funding from the European FP7 under the E-AIMS (Euro-Argo Improvements for the GMES Marine Service) project (code: 312642) and the Sea Level Thematic Assembly Center (SLTAC) of the Copernicus Marine and Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS).

Este artículo analiza una dinámica de intervenciones de Estados Unidos en América Latina que no ha atraído suficientemente la atención de los historiadores. En los años treinta y cuarenta, cuando Europa se hundía en una nueva confrontación bélica, ciertos sectores del gobierno y del mundo empresarial norteamericano intentaron articular una nueva relación con los países del continente basada en una propuesta de multilateralismo que se había configurado dentro de la Sociedad de Naciones (SN). Estos estadounidenses intentaron establecer una dinámica de relaciones triangulares con los gobiernos latinoamericanos y los organismos técnicos de la SN. Gracias a ello, como se mostrará en este artículo para el caso del funcionamiento del Comité Fiscal de la Sociedad de Naciones, los latinoamericanos fueron capaces de influir en el tipo de políticas que debían emanar de esta relación triangular. La importancia de esta historia no es menor. La relación triangular entre Estados Unidos, América Latina y la SN sirvió de base para la reconstrucción de la gobernanza global liderada por los Estados Unidos tras la guerra.

This article analyzes Minister Víctor Molina’s 1924 income tax proposal, one of the first attempts to introduce this tax in Argentina, and explores the reasons for its failure. Argentine governments did not show a permanent commitment to fiscal reform during the 1920’s, mainly because the economic situation was not dire and the Treasury was able to finance its deficits through foreign debts due to the good performance of Argentine external sector. Nonetheless, Molina’s proposal was passed by the Chamber of Deputies and therefore it could have been the first income tax law in the country. Public opinion, intellectuals, and economists seemed to be persuaded that income tax was the solution to Argentine fiscal problems. Moreover, some key social sectors like rural or industrial entrepreneurs, without enthusiastically supporting the income tax, were disposed to tolerate it. In this article, I argue that we need a political interpretation of the failure of tax reform during 1920s. Molina’s draft was blocked in the Senate by the majority of the representatives of the interior provinces. In fact, income tax was considered to be a threat to the less affluent provinces of Argentina because it implied a step toward tax centralization and unification. Yet the economic weakness of the interior did not imply political weakness, and the interior provinces were the main obstacle to fiscal reform in Argentina until the 1930s.

Los gobiernos “provisionales” que siguieron a Perón realizaron una crítica al régimen justicialista en el terreno de los impuestos basándose en la idea de su corrupción e inmoralidad y plantearon la necesidad de reformar el sistema. El gobierno procuró acercarse a ciertos actores de la sociedad civil (partidos políticos y empresarios) a los que se pidió la colaboración en la reforma. En este artículo se analizan los intentos de reforma impositiva del gobierno de la “revolución libertadora” prestando especial atención al proceso de negociación entre los representantes gubernamentales y los actores privados. El artículo muestra que la política impositiva del gobierno de facto fue poco renovadora con respecto a la peronista en parte debido a la complejidad del proceso de acuerdos con los sectores privados y a la influencia que algunos sectores empresariales alcanzaron en ese proceso.

This article deals with the process of decision-making in the sphere of taxation in Argentina between 1920 and 1945, focusing on the possible influence of the economic elites in that process. Given the central role of decisions over taxation in any fiscal policy and the momentous transformations that occurred in the Argentine system during this period, analysis of this subject can provide a better understanding of the political role that economic elites in Argentina played between the first presidency of Hipólito Yrigoyen (1916–22) and the ascent of Juan Domingo Perón to the presidency in 1946. Drawing on three key episodes in Argentina policy-making – the attempt to introduce an income tax in 1923, the response to the Depression in 1931–32, and the crisis of 1942–43, this article suggests that parliamentary institutions had stronger resilience in Argentina than is usually believed, and corporatist arrangements became rooted in Argentina only with difficulties.

This article provides an overview of our knowledge on the history of taxation on rural producers in modern Argentina. It explores the historiography written about the nation and the provinces and both for the nineteenth and the twentieth century and it underlines those subjects and questions that need further research in the future.

Tucumán, Argentina, siglos XIX y XX, azúcar, mercado, Estado nacional, finanzas, This article analyzes the origin and consolidation of the sugar industry in Tucumán between 1860 and 1914. This evolutionary approach facilitates the analysis of the Argentinian export economy from an unusual perspective, namely the building of the domestic market, and the development of a sector which was not oriented to the export trade, in a province other than Buenos Aires or la Pampa. It is contended that both aspects were intimately related, since the export boom helped to consolidate a national State which favoured the expansion of the Tucuman sugar industry through reailroad construction, finance aid and tariff protection.Este artículo analiza el origen y consolidación de la industria azucarera en Tucumán entre 1860 y 1914. Su evolución permite contemplar el período de esplendor de la economía exportadora argentina desde perspectivas poco habituales: la construcción del mercado interno y el desarrollo de producciones no destinadas al comercio externo en una provincia del interior, en lugar de Buenos Aires o la Pampa. El estudio prueba que ambos aspectos estaban íntimamente relacionados, pues el citado boom exportador ayudó a consolidar un Estado nacional que, en última instancia, propició el auge de la manufactura cañera tucumana mediante el tendido de ferrocarriles, ayudas financieras y protección arancelaria.

In 1932, the Argentine Congress passed the first income tax law in the nation’s history. However, Argentine politicians and intellectuals had been toying with the idea of the income tax for a long time. During the nineteenth century, the Argentine national Treasury was based upon customs duties (mostly taxes on imports, although there were also some levies on exports), which totaled to 75 percent of the total national income.1 In 1890, a severe economic slump challenged this fiscal regime, and for the first time, following the British example, the possibility of introducing an income tax was considered. Besides this, in order to face the economic downturn, the national government levied a pack of excises—the so-called “internal taxes”—that diminished the Treasury’s dependency on foreign commerce.2 The debate about fiscal reform did not arise only out of the dilemmas posed by the crisis. Social and political changes influenced the public debate on taxation as well. The Socialist Party, created at the end of the century, found in the criticism of protectionism and the defense of cheap imports for the working class one of its main banners. As an alternative to import taxes, the Socialists proposed progressive direct taxation, particularly on landowners. They were not alone in their concern for tax reform.

The income tax law was passed by Argentine Congress in 1932. This chapter explores its working in the 1930s until the moment before the rise of Juan Domingo Peron to power. Around the mid-twentieth century, the income tax became the single largest source of revenue for the Treasury. In addition to the income tax, new taxes were created in the early 1940s, which made the Argentine tax system increasingly progressive. These taxes and the new economic capacities of the state allowed the national government to weather the economic storm and to successfully substitute the customs’ falling revenues.

After the overthrow of Juan Domingo Peron in September 1955, and until the return of Peron himself to power in 1973, Argentina’s tax policy makers tried out several devices in order to increase revenues for the Treasury and to help in economic development. The tax system, which had been designed between 1932 and 1946, crumbled, but no major fiscal reform was implemented. In spite of a rhetoric that emphasized Peronist corruption and deviant fiscal policy, the different governments—Radicals or military—that ruled the country between 1955 and 1973 showed remarkable continuities with Peron’s regimen. The period was characterized by a struggle and alternation in power between those who strove for the end of interventionism and a greater role for markets in the economy and those who believed that state intervention was needed in order to advance the process of industrialization in the country. To some extent, the latter were following the Peronist industrial creed, even if some of them, such as the so-called desarrollistas (developmentalist), encouraged a quite different distribution of wealth between capital and labor or emphasized the need for a different, capital-intensive type of industry.2 In a lax sense, most politicians and economists were desarrollistas, that is, they thought that a powerful industrial sector was needed in order to make Argentina a modern nation.

In 1946, Juan Domingo Peron, one of the leading figures of the military regime established in 1943, won the elections for the presidency of the republic. Between 1943 and 1945, the then Colonel Peron increasingly strengthened his position within the military government. Peron outmaneuvered his mates and rivals within the government and built his own constituency in society. In late 1943, Peron took charge of the Department of Labor (later on the Secretariat of Labor). From that platform, the military man established an alliance with trade unions and workers through a policy of concessions. Workers and unions gained the state’s support while bargaining with employers.1 Besides, state’s social protection, addressed to labor, became a reality.

This article deals with the international dimension of Argentine domestic policies by exploring one of the strategies of the conservative daily newspaper La Nacion , between 1946 and 1950, in order to challenge Juan Peron’s hegemony. La Nacion presented the Peronist regime as akin to the totalitarian regimes established under the Soviet Union’s vigilance. This is not surprising, but revealing the complex ideological mechanisms employed by La Nacion in its strategy is a noteworthy endeavor. This work will provide a thorough exploration of the process through which La Nacion shifted from its former opposition to Peronism, initially identified as a Nazi-Fascist movement, to a new articulation of the regime as a totalitarian one. To some extent this was not so different from the strategy that the United States’ (US) intellectual elites were carrying out in order to justify their struggle against a former ally in war as a continuation of purpose and not a rupture. Yet, the most interesting aspect of this evolution in the Argentine case is that it emerged in an autonomous way as a result of specific national and international phenomena. This shows that the characteristics of the early phase of the Cold War were shaped by transnational processes of convergence rather than US hegemony alone.

Este artículo compara las ideas que las elites argentinas y brasileñas desarrollaron en las décadas de 1920 y 1930 sobre la cuestión de la justicia impositiva, en particular en relación con el impuesto a la renta, que se implantó en Brasil en 1924 y en Argentina en 1932. El objetivo del trabajo es demostrar la influencia de esas nociones ideológicas sobre las diferentes políticas fiscales seguidas en ambos países.This article compares the Brazilian and Argentinean elites' ideas about tax justice during the 1920's and 1930's, in particular as far as the income tax -implemented in Brazil in 1924 and in Argentina in 1932- was concerned. The essay's goal is to demonstrate how these ideas moulded the different fiscal policies carried out in both countries.

Tucuman, Argentina, siglos XIX y XX, azucar, mercado, Estado nacional, finanzas, This article analyzes the origin and consolidation of the sugar industry in Tucuman between 1860 and 1914. This evolutionary approach facilitates the analysis of the Argentinian export economy from an unusual perspective, namely the building of the domestic market, and the development of a sector which was not oriented to the export trade, in a province other than Buenos Aires or la Pampa. It is contended that both aspects were intimately related, since the export boom helped to consolidate a national State which favoured the expansion of the Tucuman sugar industry through reailroad construction, finance aid and tariff protection.