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The water–tourism nexus requires better knowledge, management and governance to address environmental and societal challenges. This review takes stock of the approaches used to address this nexus in the Mediterranean from 2000 to 2020. Bibliometric and exploratory content analysis targeted tourism impacts on water supply, determinants of water consumption, and water-saving mechanisms and technologies. A fundamental insight is that the literature remains rather water centric and technical, paying little attention to behavioural change and stakeholder action. Promising avenues to reinforce sustainable water use include transdisciplinary approaches and integrated tools such as hydrosocial cycle analysis, concept mapping and agent-based modelling. The authors thank the European Commission, the Dutch Research Council, the State Investigation Agency (Spanish Ministry of Economic Affairs and Digital Transformation) and the Italian Ministry of Education, Universities and Research for funding in the frame of the collaborative international consortium (SIMTWIST) financed under the 2018 Joint Call of the WaterWorks 2017 ERA-NET Cofund. This ERA-NET is an integral part of the activities developed by the Water JPI.

As socio-ecological systems, coastal wetlands constitute great economic, cultural, recreational and environmental value. However, due to rapid urbanisation and intensification of agricultural activities, these hybrid systems are continuously degraded, generating several ecological and social problems. This paper aims to deepen how agriculture-nature interactions and actor behaviour affect coastal wetlands' management while conditioning decision-making processes. El Hondo Natural Park (Alicante, Spain) is the selected case study in which 15 key stakeholders from the public administration, the rural community, and the civil society are selected. Data were collected between April and June 2018 through semi-structured interviews and analysed following the Grounded Theory principles and by computer-assisted qualitative and mixed methods data software, MAXQDA®. Results revealed how the rural community and civil society members agree on El Hondo Natural Park's cultural function, conceived as a mechanism to preserve local identity, protecting traditional agricultural practices and rural heritage. However, El Hondo Natural Park's origin and management generated discussion, including topics such as the natural park’ declaration, public investment, and participation in decision-making processes (especially due to the lack of transparency and information). Furthermore, main challenges have been identified: farmers' survival, water scarcity and water quality standards, and social recognition and promotion of the natural park. Researchers and relevant authorities can use obtained results to customize their interventions based on previous and well-structured knowledge of how socio-ecological systems are perceived and which past or new conflicts generate frustration among confronted stakeholders' demands. This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness [Juan de la Cierva postdoctoral research fellow, grant number FJCI-2015-24346] and by the Interuniversity Institute of Geography, University of Alicante [grant number I-PI-88-18], both awarded to the first author.

Since the middle of the 20th century, urban-tourist development in tourist destinations on the Mediterranean coast has required the creation of complex water supply systems to guarantee a growing water demand. At present, the challenges posed by climate change around the management of water resources requires the implementation of adequate water policies and sustainable environmental solutions to foster the adaptation to a foreseeable future characterized by lower availability of conventional water resources and more recurrent and intense droughts. In this context, the link between the scientific field, the stakeholders from the tourism sector, and the decision-makers is vital to favor viable, effective, and consensual solutions that shift the focus from the objective of guarantee tourist water demand to a sustainability scenario from both an environmental, economic, and social point of view. Therefore, it is relevant to question whether there is a large gap between the actions and focus of attention in each of these three areas (scientific, decision-makers, and stakeholders). In other words, does scientific research related to water consumption by the tourism sector adequately respond to the knowledge needs required by stakeholders and decision-makers to achieve the aforementioned sustainability objectives? Through a literature review, this study addresses the main topics, methodologies, and results related to water consumption in hotels on the Spanish Mediterranean coast and their possible impact on the actions made by managers, decision-makers or stakeholders from the tourism sector. To evaluate the science-policy interface, it has also been made a policy review of the main laws, regulations, and plans developed by the different levels of public administration and other private entities in the tourism sector concerning water consumption in hotels, for the Benidorm case study, located in the southeast of Spain. To identify the measures implemented by stakeholders from the tourism sector to reduce water consumption and their vision about the challenges and barriers in this issue, we have taken into account the results of previous projects in which more than twenty surveys and interviews have been carried out to the hotel managers as well as to the Benidorm hotel association (HOSBEC). Likewise, to contextualize the results of these surveys and interviews, we have analyzed the raw water supply data provided by the entity in charge of this service, the Marina Baja Water Consortium, as well as billing and smart meter data from the hotels, provided by the company in charge of the local water supply service, Hidraqua. The results will make possible to highlight the links and differences found between the problems and research approaches raised from the scientific field, the regulations and plans proposed by the public administration and other private decision-makers and the actions and future challenges identified by the tourism sector in the city of Benidorm. The identification of the existing gaps between the three areas (scientists, policy-makers, and stakeholders) will be useful to reshape the agenda of future research and re-think the role of science when responding to managers and decision-makers’ requests on water management and tourism nexus.

Water consumption continues to grow globally, and it is estimated that more than 160% of the total global water volume will be needed to satisfy the water requirements in ten years. In this context, non-conventional water resources are being considered to overcome water scarcity and reduce water conflicts between regions and sectors. A bibliometric analysis and literature review of 81 papers published between 2000 and 2020 focused on south-east Spain were conducted. The aim was to examine and re-think the benefits and concerns, and the inter-connections, of using reclaimed and desalinated water for agricultural and urban-tourist uses to address water scarcity and climate change impacts. Results highlight that: (1) water use, cost, quality, management, and perception are the main topics debated by both reclaimed and desalinated water users; (2) water governance schemes could be improved by including local stakeholders and water users in decision-making; and (3) rainwater is not recognized as a complementary option to increase water supply in semi-arid regions. Furthermore, the strengths–weaknesses–opportunities–threats (SWOT) analysis identifies complementary concerns such as acceptability and investment in reclaimed water, regulation (cost recovery principle), and environmental impacts of desalinated water. This study is supported by the project “Cambio climático y agua: los recursos no convencionales como estrategia adaptativa para incrementar la resiliencia de los usos agrícolas y urbano-turísticos en el litoral de Alicante” (AICO/2020/253) and funded by the Regional government of Valencia, Spain, through the Programa per a la promoció de la investigación científica, el desenvolupament tecnològic i la innovació en la Comunitat Valenciana. This research is partially supported by the SIMTWIST project (ERA-NET Water JPI 2018) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (PCI2019-103395).

Coastal wetlands are among the most productive and valuable ecosystems worldwide, although one of the main factors affecting their survival is the coexistence between agriculture and conservation. This paper analyses the complex balance between agriculture and conservation coexistence in El Hondo Natural Park (Alicante, Spain) coastal wetland by examining stakeholders’ narratives, perceptions, and interactions. The aim is to highlight the concurrence between socio-economic progress and socio-environmental justice perspectives by identifying those driving factors motivating stakeholders’ conflicts while expanding stakeholders’ behaviour and interaction when discussing the current and future management of this socio-ecological system. Data were collected between April and June 2019 from semi-structured interviews and questionnaires to river basin authorities, regional governments, municipalities, irrigation communities, union farms, regional and local ecologist groups, and social movements; and scrutinized through qualitative data analysis and descriptive statistics. Stakeholders discussed the main driving factors identified through the local newspapers to motivating current conflicts and confronting perspectives in El Hondo Natural Park: (1) the origin and evolution of the coastal wetland, (2) the provision and value of ecosystem services, (3) the management of water scarcity and water quality standards, (4) the guarantee and management of public and private investment, and (5) consequences of a natural park declaration. Likewise, the triple-loop analysis of stakeholders’ representativeness, relevance and collaboration highlighted examples of stakeholders’ underrepresentation and power imbalance, a negative assessment of the stakeholders’ actions, and how agreements are based on both stakeholders’ predisposition to collaborate and affinity. Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC agreement with Springer Nature. This study were funded by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (FJCI-2015-24346) and University of Alicante (I-PI-88-18).

El periodo de disminución del consumo urbano de agua iniciado a mediados de la década del 2000 en España se invirtió en algunas áreas litorales del Mediterráneo a partir del año 2014 como resultado de la recuperación económica y el crecimiento de la actividad turística. Sin embargo, a escala inframunicipal este cambio de tendencia no se ha producido de manera homogénea. Con el objetivo de mejorar la comprensión de estas tendencias, se han realizado 171 encuestas personales en hogares de dos municipios del litoral de Alicante y se han solicitado sus datos de facturación de agua agregados por tipología de vivienda y sector urbano. Los resultados del análisis de la evolución del consumo entre 2007 y 2017 y de la percepción del precio del agua indican que se ha producido un incremento de la desigualdad urbana. Mientras que en las áreas urbanas de baja densidad el consumo ha aumentado, especialmente en las viviendas secundarias, en las áreas urbanas de alta densidad la disminución se ha mantenido, llegando a niveles que podrían indicar situaciones de pobreza hídrica, por lo que se propone la revisión de las estructuras tarifarias para fomentar una distribución más justa de los costes del servicio. The period of urban water consumption decline that began in the mid-2000s in Spain was reversed in some Mediterranean coastal areas from 2014 as a result of the economic recovery and the tourist activity growth. However, at the infra-municipal level, this change in trend has not occurred in a homogeneous way. In order to improve the understanding of these trends, 171 personal surveys have been carried out in households of two municipalities of the Alicante coastline and their water billing data has been requested, aggregated by type of housing and urban sector. The results of the water consumption evolution analysis between 2007 and 2017 and the perception of the water price indicate that there has been an increase in urban inequality. While in low-density urban areas consumption has increased, especially in second homes, in high-density urban areas the decrease has been maintained, reaching levels that could indicate situations of water poverty. Therefore, the revision of the tariff structures is proposed to promote a fairer distribution of water service costs. Este artículo forma parte de una tesis doctoral financiada con una beca de Formación del Profesorado Universitario por el Ministerio de Educación Cultura y Deporte (FPU15/01144). Asimismo, se inserta en el proyecto de investigación "Evaluación de la pobreza hídrica en entornos urbanos del litoral mediterráneo: estudios de caso (Alicante, Murcia y el Área Metropolitana de Barcelona)", financiado por el Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (PID2019-104456RB-C22).

Research interest in massive online and open courses (MOOCs) is rapidly growing, questioning who enrolls, why and how to conceive engagement, and success rates. This study is focused on MOOC-takers behavior obtained from a seven-week MOOC experience on natural risks. Data scraping principles have been used to collect data. Demographics, success-dropout rates, engagement periods, achievement and scoring, and behavior were analyzed through descriptive statistics, non-parametric correlation analysis, and statistical hypothesis testing. The results show that students who start earlier and those who finish earlier the course obtain better grades in some of the modules (motivation and background on natural risks could be the explanation). However, for &lsquo, last moment students&rsquo, speed in passing the modules is either related to greater motivation, although in this case it is not related to better grades. Furthermore, students who complete tasks during the weekend take less time to complete the modules and obtain a better grade. In addition, a learning strategy is promoted by reconsidering who is learning: players (those who complete the course and earning a certificate), auditors (those who have completed a thematic unit or the whole module, earning partial knowledge), and spectators (those enrolled until the end of the course, who intend earning experience in e-learning).

Although desalination water cost and quality standards have been widely studied, less attention has been paid to understanding how desalination plant managers and irrigation communities interact to address water scarcity. This paper aims to approach these questions from experience in Alicante and Murcia (Spain). Two specific questionnaires have been applied to (1) three desalination plants managed by the Spanish public company ACUAMED, and (2) 11 irrigation communities who use desalinated seawater. Discursive analysis has been applied in order to deepen understanding on the driving factors, benefits, and barriers of desalination use and management. Results highlighted how (1) irrigation communities consider desalination as a complementary water source to be combined with conventional water resources, (2) both ACUAMED and irrigation communities highlighted two main advantages of desalination: the security/guarantee of supply and water quality parameters, and (3) managers and irrigators disagree on the desalination model of seawater provision and management, since irrigators consider that the Central Union of the Tajo-Segura transfer irrigators (SCRATS) should have a leading role. In addition, the main driving factors and barriers useful for policy makers when closing the gap of desalination have been identified: water price and energy consumption, lack of water storage capacity and regulation, environmental impacts.

Desalination for sustaining agricultural production is conceived as an alternative water source in some Mediterranean countries faced with climatological and hydrological constraints. Although high costs are often cited as limiting factors, how farmers discern desalinated water has not been discussed in-depth in the literature. This paper aims to deepen how desalination is perceived by irrigators, what driving factors are affecting irrigation communities&rsquo, decision-making processes, and what learnings can be drawn from their experiences regarding desalination acceptance or rejection. Eleven irrigation communities have been selected from Alicante and Murcia regions (South-East Spain), which account for more than 60,000 irrigators and 120,000 ha. Questionnaires were conducted between March and December 2019. Results highlighted the main advantages (water availability and supply security) and disadvantages (high price affecting profitable crop options, high-energy consumption, water quality standards, the production capacity of desalination plants, no seasonal variation in water production, and shortages due to technical problems) of using desalinated water. Additionally, through the analysis of regional and national press news, it can be concluded that socio-political aspects, such as corruption, cost overruns, and political disputes are also considered.

Treated wastewater is constantly produced and relatively unaffected by climatic conditions, while Constructed Wetlands (CWs) are recognized as green technology and a cost-effective alternative to improve treated wastewater quality standards. This paper analyses how farmers consider (1) treated wastewater to face water scarcity risk and (2) CW as mechanisms to face agricultural water pollution in a climate change adaptation context. A survey about climate change perception and adaptation measures was answered by 177 farmers from two irrigation communities near El Hondo coastal wetland and the Santa Pola saltmarshes, both perceived as natural-constructed systems in Alicante, southern Spain. Results highlighted how, even with poor-quality standards, treated wastewater is considered a non-riskier measure and more reliable option when addressing climate change impacts. Overall, physical water harvesting (such as CWs) is the favorite choice when investing in water technologies, being perceived as the best option for users of treated wastewater and those concerned about water quality standards. Consequently, CWs were recognized as mechanisms to increase water supply and reduce water pollution. Policy-makers and water managers can use these learnings from farmers’ experience to identify the main barriers and benefits of using treated wastewater and CWs to address water scarcity and water pollution risks. This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Juan de la Cierva postdoctoral research fellow, grant number FJCI-2015-24346) and by the Interuniversity Institute of Geography, University of Alicante (grant number I-PI-88-18), both awarded to the first author.

La gestión del regadío multifuncional se viene debatiendo en términos que incorporan tanto la preocupación por su impacto socioeconómico y ambiental, como discusiones acerca de los intereses público-privados que emanan de su promoción. Con ello, las cuestiones sobre quién forma parte de la toma de decisiones y en qué medida participa o ejerce cierto control o influencia sobre el conjunto de actores centran el debate sobre su legitimidad y gobernanza. El presente artículo profundiza en estos aspectos de la mano de un caso de estudio, el corredor agroecológico que conforma el Parque Natural El Hondo y el Parque Natural Agrario Los Carrizales (Elche, Alicante). En base a la realización de entrevistas semi-estructuradas y cuestionarios y con el fin de profundizar en su modelo de gestión y las relaciones de poder entre partes interesadas, este artículo analiza 1) las cuestiones que generan mayor preocupación y debate en el sistema agroecológico El Hondo-Los Carrizales y 2) el nivel de gobernanza en la toma de decisiones que emana de su gestión. Los resultados muestran un reconocimiento social escaso del carácter multifuncional de ambos parques, así como la necesidad de afianzar su gestión de forma integrada y adaptativa para con ello aumentar su resiliencia frente a los impactos del cambio climático y maximizar su potencial agronómico, ambos dos aspectos clave para la supervivencia del sistema El Hondo-Los Carrizales. The management of multifunctional irrigation has been debated both in terms of the concern for its socio-economic and environmental impact, and discussions about the public-private interests that emanate from its promotion. According to this, questions about who takes part of the decision-making processes and to what extent they participate or exert some control or influence on the whole stakeholders focus the debate about its legitimacy and governance. This article delves into these aspects from the analysis of a case study, the agroecological corridor formed by the El Hondo Natural Park and Los Carrizales Agrarian Natural Park (Elche, Alicante). From semi-structured interviews and questionnaires and in order to deepen on its management model and the power relations between key stakeholders, the paper analyses 1) the issues that generate the greatest concern and debate on the El Hondo-Los Carrizales agroecological system and 2) the level of governance in decision-making process. Results show a lack of social recognition towards the multifunctionality of both parks, as well as the need to strengthen its management in an integrated and adaptive way, thereby increasing its resilience to the impacts of climate change and maximizing its agronomic potential, both key aspects for the survival of the agroecological system of El Hondo-Los Carrizales.

El litoral mediterráneo español ha vivido un importante crecimiento urbano relacionado con la actividad turística desde 1960. El objetivo de esta investigación es analizar y caracterizar la tendencia del gasto de agua en la costa de Alicante (2005-2015), teniendo en cuenta la repercusión del aumento de viviendas y usuarios conectados a la red durante el último boom inmobiliario (1997-2008). Para ello, se han analizado datos de facturación de agua potable por vivienda en función de las diferentes tipologías urbano-residenciales y tipo de ocupación, y un análisis del consumo en hoteles. Entre las conclusiones cabe mencionar que se ha producido un cambio de tendencia a partir de mediados de la década del 2000 con una reducción del consumo y la verificación de pautas distintas en los módulos de gasto de agua. Se detecta, asimismo, que en determinadas tipologías de marcada función turístico-residencial se ha producido una moderada recuperación del consumo de agua desde 2010. The Spanish Mediterranean coastline has experienced a significant urban growth related to tourist activity since 1960. The aim of this research is to define and to analyse water consumption trend along the coast of province of Alicante (2005-2015), taking into account a hypothetical increase in water consumption due to the increase in dwelling and users connected to the network during the last real estate bubble (1997-2008). To do this, real billing data of dwelling were analysed according to the different urban typologies and type of occupation and an analysis of hotels consumption. The conclusions drawn include facts as there has been a change of trend from the middle of the 2000s and water consumption has been fell since the mid-2000s. In addition, it is also detected that a slight increase of water consumption has produced in certain typologies of tourist and residential function since 2000. La côte méditerranéenne espagnole a connu une croissance urbaine très important en relation avec le tourisme depuis 1960. L'objectif de cette recherche est d'analyser et de caractériser l'évolution de la consommation d'eau à la côte d'Alicante (Sud-Est d’Espagne) (2005-2015), en prenant en compte l'impact de la croissant de logements et les utilisateurs connectés au réseau pendant le dernier boom immobilier (1997-2008). À cette fin, nous avons analysé la facturation de l'eau potable par ménage en fonction des différentes typologies résidentielles urbaines et le type d'occupation et une analyse de la consommation d’eau dans les hôtels. Parmi les résultats comprennent qu'il y a eu un changement de tendance à partir du milieu des années 2000 avec une réduction de la consommation et la vérification des différents modèles de la consommation d'eau. En plus, nous avons détecte aussi que certains types urbaines de fonction touristique et résidentielle ont été une reprise modérée de la consommation d'eau depuis 2010.

The Spanish regions located in the Mediterranean have been affected by several factors over the years (climatic conditions of aridity, strong demands, quick and intense urban and population growth) that have generated a negative water balance in which water contributions are unable to meet the demands. This problem is aggravated by future scenarios estimated as a consequence of climate change, which predicts a decrease in precipitation and an increase in temperature and frequency of maximum events. The aim of this work is to evaluate the adaptation strategies that have been conducted in these cities in order to adjust their hydrosocial cycles to development, as well as new actions that are being implemented in order to mitigate the effects of climate change. Diversification of supply sources has been one of the keys to this evolution, using both own and external resources. These adaptive measures have made the search for new supply sources a necessity, stimulating the expansion and integration of non-conventional water sources (desalination and reuse of reclaimed water). Likewise new strategies, such as the implementation of sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS), seem to gain positions in the water planning of these regions. The theoretical analysis developed in this work is corroborated by the study of the hydrosocial cycle evolution of three cities of the province of Alicante (southeast Spain), and the adaptive measures that the different actors involved in the cycle have developed in each one of them. The input and output are considered in this system thanks to the information provided by the management companies in each of the phases (urban consumption, treated and reused volumes). The results obtained evidence the complexity of this hybrid socio-natural process where water and society influence each other and where an adequate planning is essential in order to overcome new scenarios.

El litoral de las regiones de Murcia y Valencia ha sufrido grandes transformaciones territoriales durante las últimas décadas, debido a la fuerte expansión de las funciones residenciales, turísticas y de servicios. El Plan Hidrológico Nacional (2001) y, en mayor medida, el Programa A.G.U.A. (2004) apostaron por la desalinización de agua marina a gran escala para garantizar demandas urbanas, turísticas e incluso agrícolas. La paralización de los planes urbanísticos provocada por la crisis financiera (2007), unida a la tendencia de reducción del consumo de agua potable de la última década, evidencian una capacidad de producción de agua desalinizada muy superior a las necesidades del momento presente. Esta investigación revisa la situación actual de la desalinización de agua marina y salobre continental en las regiones de Murcia y Valencia, hace balance de sus ventajas e inconvenientes y plantea una discusión en torno al papel que puede desempeñar esta fuente no convencional como recurso estratégico y de futuro para garantizar demandas urbano-turísticas y agrícolas, principalmente durante situaciones de sequía. El litoral de les regions de Múrcia i València ha patit grans transformacions territorials durant les últimes dècades, a causa de la forta expansió de les funcions residencials, turístiques i de servicis. El Pla Hidrològic Nacional (2001) i, en major grau, el Programa A.G.U.A. (2004) van apostar per la dessalinització d'aigua marina a gran escala per a garantir demandes urbanes, turístiques i inclús agrícoles. La paralització dels plans urbanístics provocada per la crisi financera (2007), junt amb la tendència de reducció del consum d'aigua potable de l'última dècada, evidencien una capacitat de producció d'aigua dessalinitzada molt superior a les necessitats del moment present. Esta investigació revisa la situació actual de la dessalinització d'aigua marina i salobre continental en les regions de Múrcia i València, fa balanç dels avantatges i dels inconvenients que comporta i planteja una discussió entorn del paper que pot exercir esta font no convencional com a recurs estratégic i de futur per a garantir demandes urbano-turístiques i agrícoles, principalment durant situacions de sequera. The coast of the regions of Murcia and Valencia has undergone important land use changes in recent decades due to the intense expansion of tourism activity and residential and services uses. In general, the Spanish National Hydrological Plan of 2001, and especially the A.G.U.A. Program of 2004, supported large-scale water desalination to guarantee urban, tourism and rural water demand. The end of the urban sprawl due to the economic crisis, in addition to the decrease in drinking water consumption in the last decade, have resulted in a desalination water production capacity that is higher than current needs. This research reviews the current status of desalination water (from the sea and underground) in the regions of Murcia and Valencia. Moreover, it takes stock of its advantages and disadvantages, and discusses the role that this strategic and unconventional resource could play in the future to ensure urban, tourism and rural demands, especially during droughts. Les régions côtières de Murcia et de Valencia ont subi d'importantes transformations territoriales au cours des dernières décennies en raison de la forte expansion des fonctions résidentielles, touristiques et des services. Le Plan Hidrológico Nacional (2001) et notamment, le Programa A.G.U.A. (2004) ont parié sur le dessalement d'eau de mer à grande échelle pour répondre aux demandes urbaine, touristique et rurale. L'interruption des plans urbains provoquée par la crise financière (2007), s'ajoutant à une réduction de la consommation d'eau potable à partir de la dernière décennie mettent en évidence une capacité de production d'eau dessalée supérieure aux besoins actuels. Cette étude passe en revue l'état actuel du dessalement d'eau de mer et saumâtre dans les régions de Murcia et de Valencia. Il fait aussi un équilibre des avantages et des inconvénients et présente une discussion sur le rôle que cette source non conventionnelle stratégique et d'avenir peut jouer pour répondre aux demances urbaine, touristique et rurale, particulièrement en période de sécheresse.

La garantía de abastecimiento de agua es una condición básica para el mantenimiento de los estándares de calidad de un núcleo turístico. Benidorm es la ciudad turística más importante del litoral mediterráneo español por su número de plazas hoteleras. La adaptación a la sequía ha sido una constante desde mediados del pasado siglo en este destino turístico. Se han llevado a cabo medidas municipales y supramunicipales para asegurar el suministro de agua potable y, asimismo, medidas desde el sector hotelero que han permitido reducir de manera significativa el consumo de agua por persona y día entre 1975 y 2015. El umbral de riesgo de sequía se ha reducido drásticamente a partir de la creación del Consorcio de aguas comarcal y de la implantación de sistemas de aprovechamiento de recursos de agua no convencionales (aguas depuradas y desalación). Water supply guarantee is a basic condition for maintaining the quality standards of a tourist town. Benidorm is the most important tourist center in Spanish Mediterranean coast by its number of hotel rooms. The adaptation to droughts has been a constant since the middle of last century in this tourist town. It have been carried out municipal and supra-municipal measures to ensure consumption of potable water, and also actions from the private hotel sector that have reduced significantly the consumption of water per person per day, between 1975 and 2015. Drought risk has been drastically reduced from the creation of the supra-municipal water agency and the implementation of systems that use non-conventional water resources (treated wastewater and desalination). Este trabajo se ha desarrollado en el marco del proyecto de investigación competitivo (I+D) titulado “Urbanización y metabolismo hídrico en el litoral de Alicante: análisis de tendencias para el periodo 2000-2010” (CSO2012-36997-C02-02).

Water availability in adequate quantities and qualities is a fundamental requirement for tourism. In the Mediterranean, one of the world’s leading tourist destinations, water availability is subject to modest and erratic precipitation figures which may decline with climate change. The tourist industry therefore may have to assure future supplies by either recurring to new technologies such as desalination or increasing efficiency in water use. A third and yet little explored alternative would be to seek for complementary of uses with irrigation, the traditional user in many coastal Mediterranean areas and holder of substantial amounts of water. In this paper we present the example of the Consorcio de Aguas de la Marina Baja to show how Benidorm, in Mediterranean Spain and one of the most important tourist centers of the Mediterranean, obtains part of its water through agreements with farmers by which these trade their water with Benidorm and other towns’ treated wastewater of enough quality to be used for irrigation, and obtain several compensations in return. The advantages and disadvantages of the water trade between farmers and tourist interests in the Benidorm area are discussed and we argue that solutions to the pending water crisis of many coastal Mediterranean tourist areas may not need to rely uniquely on expensive technologies to generate new resources but may attempt other alternatives. Part of the research was funded by the Spanish CICYT under grant numbers CSO2009-12772-03-01, and CSO2009-12772-03-03.

Tourism represents a fundamental economic strategy for many cities, regions and countries around the world. Yet, it is also one of the main drivers of global environmental change and may have deleterious effects on a number of critical environmental vectors such as water. The development of tourism in Mediterranean region raises special concerns regarding water because of summer droughts and large concentrations of seasonal tourists. Nevertheless, tourist destinations are far from being homogeneous in their consumption of water and other resources. In this paper we argue that dense, high rise tourist centers tend to use comparatively less water than disperse, low density residential resorts, taking the case of Benidorm and the Alicante coast (Mediterranean Spain) as examples. Thus we seek to illustrate how water consumption may differ substantially depending on the predominant tourist land use patterns and their associated different densities (i.e., campsites, hotels, holiday resorts, apartments, residential homes, etc.). The observed different water consumption patterns reaffirm the heterogeneous nature and impacts of tourist activities and corroborate that density is a crucial variable for understanding the economic, social, and environmental effects of tourism.

La reutilización de aguas depuradas constituye una fuente alternativa y sostenible para atender demandas agrarias, urbanas y de ocio. Además, su empleo permite liberar los recursos de agua de mayor calidad para garantizar usos prioritarios, como el urbano-turístico. En regiones con elevada vulnerabilidad frente a las sequías y con problemas de escasez hídrica, como son Murcia y Valencia, la reutilización de aguas regeneradas se ha afianzado durante las dos últimas décadas para garantizar suministros agrícolas, urbanos (jardines y baldeo de calles), recreativos (campos de golf) e industriales. Ello se ha visto favorecido por una mejora de las tecnologías de depuración, mediante tratamientos terciarios avanzados que incluyen desalinización. Este trabajo ofrece un balance de las iniciativas más destacadas de reutilización de aguas depuradas en las regiones de Murcia y Valencia, algunas de ellas pioneras a escala internacional. The reuse of treated wastewater is an alternative and sustainable source to attend agricultural, urban and leisure demands. In addition, their use frees better quality water resources to ensure priority uses, such as urban tourism. In regions with high vulnerability to droughts and water scarcity problems, such as Murcia and Valencia, reuse of reclaimed water has been strengthened over the past two decades to ensure agricultural, urban (gardens and street cleaning), recreational (golf courses) and industrial supplies. This has been favored by an improvement in purification technology, using advanced tertiary treatment that include desalination. This paper offers an overview of the most important initiatives for the reuse of treated water in the regions of Murcia and Valencias, pioneers internationally. Esta investigación es resultado de la concesión de dos becas pre-doctorales. La primera de ellas, de Formación de Profesorado Universitario del Programa Nacional de Investigación Científica, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica (FPU) y la segunda, del Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad. Además, se inserta en el Proyecto de Investigación “Urbanización y metabolismo hídrico en el litoral de Alicante: análisis de tendencias para el periodo 2000-2010” (CSO2012-36997-CO2-02) financiado por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad.

El análisis de las unidades de consumo de agua asociadas a las actividades turísticas resulta imprescindible para valorar la eficiencia ambiental y socioeconómica del modelo de desarrollo territorial urbano-turístico valenciano. Este trabajo analiza el gasto de agua urbano-turístico en las distintas formas de implantación territorial de estas actividades, especialmente en la modalidades de alojamiento hotelero y residencial, comparando la eficiencia de la gestión del agua potable en modelos urbanos de baja densidad y de alta densidad (concentrados). Para dicho fin se ha recurrido a un método empírico, mediante encuestas y trabajos de campo realizados en empresas de agua potable de los principales destinos turísticos de la Comunidad Valenciana. Con la colaboración de estas empresas, se han analizado los principales sistemas de abastecimiento para valorar las tendencias de consumo, la estacionalidad, el rendimiento técnico de las redes y el ciclo integral del agua. Asimismo, se incluyen resultados sobre el consumo de agua realizado en hoteles, en sus diferentes categorías. También en las distintas categorías de viviendas ocupadas por turistas y residentes en periodos de vacaciones, y en otros establecimientos vinculados a las actividades turísticas (restaurantes, camping, etc). The analysis of water consumption units associated with tourist activities turns out to be indispensable to value environmental and socioeconomic efficiency of Valencian model of territorial, urban and tourist development. This research analyzes urban and tourist water consumption on different forms of these activities territorial implantation, specially on hotel and residential housing modalidades, comparing efficiency of drinkable water in low density and high density urban models. To achieve the mentioned purpose, it has been resorted to an empirical method, by means of surveys and fieldworks realized to drinkable water companies on principal tourist destinations of Valencian Region. With these companies collaboration, it has been analyzed principal systems of supply in order to value consumption trends, seasonal variation, nets technical performance and wate integral cycle. Likewise, this research has offered new results on water consumption realized by hotels and on its different categories. Also by housings different categories occupied by tourists and residents on holidays periods and by other establishments linked to the tourist activities (restaurants, camping, etc.).

The energy intensity of water—‘energy (electricity)-for-water’—is calculated for Benidorm, a mass tourism resort in the Spanish Mediterranean coast, where the urban water cycle has evolved in response to a series of episodes of water stress. The analysis is based on primary data compiled from various actors involved in the urban water cycle encompassing water extraction, end uses, and wastewater treatment, including tertiary treatment. The results provide one of the first analyses of the relations between energy and water in a mass tourist center, which may be of potential interest for other tourist areas. It is estimated that a total of 109 GWh/year of electricity is required to operate the water cycle of Benidorm. About 4% of total energy use in Benidorm is dedicated to extracting, transporting, and treating water. The most energy-intensive stage is represented by end uses, which accounts for 20% of the total energy use in Benidorm when the energy required for water pumping and hot water use is considered. Additionally, energy intensity for water extraction was estimated for normal, wet, and two dry year scenarios. In comparison with the normal scenario, energy intensity is six times larger when desalinated water is incorporated during a dry year, whereas the emergency interbasin water transfer resulted in a more moderate increase in energy intensity. While treated wastewater and emergency water transfers appear to be a more convenient solution in energy terms, the strong impulse given to desalination in Spain is forcing local water authorities towards the use of a resource that is much more energy intensive, although, on the other hand, much less dependent on the vagaries of climate. In light of recent technological and managerial developments, the Benidorm case illuminates the challenges appearing in the analysis of the water-energy nexus, especially the fact that scarcity may be transferred from water to energy. This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness under the Grants BES-2013-066420 (to Hyerim Yoon) and CSO2015-65182-C2-1-P (Research project “Uso de recursos hidricos no convencionales y adaptacion a las sequias en el litoral mediterraneo: realidades y propuestas para una planificacion resiliente del agua”).

In this paper we explore the new orientation taken by Spanish water policy since the beginning of the 21st century and very specifically the shift towards desalination as an alternative to other water supply options such as river regulation or inter-basin water transfers. Desalination has been seen as the cure for everything that dams and inter-basin water transfers were unable to solve, including droughts, scarcities, social conflicts, environmental impacts, and political rivalries among the different Spanish regions. Desalination also means a new and powerful element in water planning and management that could provide water for the continuous expansion of the urban and tourist growth machine in Mediterranean Spain and thus relax possible water constraints on this growth. However, by 2012 most new desalination plants along the Mediterranean coast remained almost idle. Focusing on the case of the Mancomunidad de Canales del Taibillla in South-eastern Spain, our aim is to develop a critical, integrated and reflexive perspective on the use of desalination as a source of water for urban and regional growth. Part of this research was funded by the Spanish CICYT under grant numbers CSO2012-36997-C02-01, CSO2012-36997-C02-02 and JCI-2011-10709.

La percepció n del fenó meno climá tico de la sequí a ha evolucionado en relaci ón con la transformaci ón econ ómica y la modificació n de los h ábitos de vida y de consumo ocurridos en los ú ltimos cincuenta a ños en la sociedad españ ola. La secuencia seca de 1966-67, de consecuencias econó micas importantes en las tierras del sureste ibérico, marca el cambio de la tradicional adaptaci ón a la reducció n de lluvias a su consideraci ón como secuencia catastró fica consolid ándose esta percepció n en los episodios m ás recientes de 1978-84 y 1992-96. El aumento desmesurado de las demandas y una poco eficaz planificació n de los recursos hí dricos está en el origen de este modo de entender un hecho natural. Drought's perceptions have changed in spanish society in relation with economic progress and life and consum habits modification during the last fifty years. The dry sequence 1966-67, with important economic effects in south-east Spain marks the change between traditional adjust to its consideration how a catastrophic episode; perception consolidated during 1978-84 and 1992-96 sequences. Excessive increase of demands and an inefficient planification of water resources are in the origen of this kind of understand this natural event. Este trabajo ha sido realizado en el marco del proyecto de investigaci ón CLI98-0598 del Plan Nacional del Clima, Ministerio de Educaci ón y Ciencia, que se desarrolla en el Instituto Universitario de Geograf ía de la Universidad de Alicante

Aridez y escasez de recursos hídricos han propiciado la existencia en el Vinalopó Medio de una extensa superficie regada, sometida a la explotación de acuíferos subterráneos. La ampliación descontrolada del cultivo de la uva de mesa unida a un irracional uso del agua, comprometen la propia viabilidad económica del sector agrario en la zona. La utilización de sistemas de riego localizado de alta frecuencia y la ampliación de la capacidad de embalse, forman parte de un proceso de renovación y una posible solución al problema. Aridity and hydric resources scarceness have conciliated the existence of a wide irrigated area on the Vinalopó Medio (Alicante-Spain), subjected to subterranean water-bearings development. The uncontrolled extension of the grape growing next to the unreasonable use of water, imperil the own economic viability of the rural sector in this zone. The use of drip irrigation systems in high frequence and the extension of putting into a pond capacity, are part of a reform process and a posible solution to the problem.

espanolAumento de temperaturas y disminucion de las precipitaciones, a modo de consecuencias irremediables del futuro climatico, son los principales escenarios de estudio de la actual hipotesis de cambio climatico por efecto invernadero en la fachada mediterranea espanola. Nuestro porvenir climatico: ?Un escenario de aridez?, lejos de visiones alarmistas, ofrece un analisis pormenorizado de la evolucion de los elementos climaticos basicos en las regiones de Valencia y Murcia durante los ultimos cincuenta anos. Este analisis ha sido llevado sobre una seleccion rigurosa de observatorios urbanos y rurales, revision de las fluctuaciones holocenas del clima, estudio de la dinamica atmosferica sobre la region mediterranea —una de las mas complejas del mosaico de climas mundiales—, y una exposicion minuciosa de los factores posibles, naturales y antropicos, de cambio climatico. catalaL'augment de les temperatures i la disminucio de les precipitacions, son els principals escenaris d'estudi de l'actual hipotesi de canvi climatic per l'efecte hivernacle en la facana mediterrania. Nuestro porvenir climatico, ?un escenario de aridez?, fugint de visions alarmistes, ofereix una analisi de l'evolucio dels elements climatics basics en les regions de Valencia i Murcia durant els darrers cinquanta anys. L'analisi s'ha fet sobre una seleccio rigorosa d'observatoris, urbans i rurals, revisio de les fluctuacions holocenes del clima, estudi de la dinamica atmosferica sobre la regio mediterrania -una de les mes complexes del mosaic de climes mundials-, i una exposicio minuciosa dels factors possibles, naturals i antropics, del canvi climatic. J. Quereda, E. Monton i J. Escrig pertanyen a l'Estacio de Climatologia de la Universitat Jaume I de Castello; A. Gil, J. Olcina i A. Rico a l'Institut Interuniversitari de Geografia de la Universitat d'Alacant. Aquest treball ha obtingut l'accesit al II Premi d'Investigacio del Consell Social de la Universitat Jaume I, l'any 2001. EnglishThe increase of temperatures and the decrease of precipitation are the two main settings of the actual hypothesis about climatic change in the Mediterranean area. The book analyses the development of the basic climatic elements in Valencia and Murcia during the last fifty years. The analysis is based on a strict selection of both, urban and rural observatories, the review of climatic fluctuations, the study of the atmospheric dynamism in the Mediterranean area - one of the most complex in the world - and a detailed exposition of the possible factors that cause climatic change. J. Quereda, E. Monton and J. Escrig belong to the Estacio de Climatologia de la Universitat Jaume I, and A. Gil, J. Olcina and A. Rico are members of the Institut Interuniversitari de Geografia de la Universitat d'Alacant.

Los estudios sobre el cambio climático están acaparando las investigaciones de tiempo y clima en los últimos años. A las investigaciones científicas bien fundadas encaminadas a demostrar la veracidad de la actual hipótesis de cambio climático por efecto invernadero y sus efectos en el medio terrestre se han sumado posturas arribistas que están convirtiendo lo que debería ser un debate científico en un vehículo de propaganda de discursos «verdes» carentes, en la mayoría de casos, de base científica. Es necesario hacer revisión de las certezas e incertidumbres que acompañan la hipótesis de cambio climático para ponderar los posibles efectos que, de confirmarse, podría tener este proceso en las tierras ibéricas. Studies on climatic change have been dominating the time and climatic research in recent years. Findings of several studies have proven that there are definite links between climatic change and the «greenhouse effect». To these, have been added upstart opinions which lack scientific basis and are being used as a propaganda instrument by envirornentalists in campaigns to gain more support. It is necessary to review the certainties and uncertainties which accompany the climatic change hypothesis in order to consider the possible effects that the Iberian Peninsula could undergo, if the hypothesis is confirmed.

La participación del geógrafo en investigaciones de orientación aplicada, aunque no es muy frecuente en nuestro país, resulta básica para aportar nuevos métodos y enfoques que enriquezcan los trabajos de Ordenación del Territorio y Planificación Regional. El Plan Estratégico del Vinalopó, realizado por un equipo multidisciplinar (geógrafos, economistas, arquitectos) de la Universidad de Alicante, ha permitido poner en práctica un método de análisis geográfico regional destinado a optimizar los recursos naturales, productivos, demográficos y culturales de este espacio subregional valenciano, a partir de una serie de líneas de actuación estratégicas que han tenido en cuenta las singularidades del territorio. The participation of geographer in applied research, althoug, not much frequent in our country, is very important to contribute new methods and approachs in order to enrich land management and regional planning works. Vinalopo´s strategic planning, made by a cross disciplinary team of Alicante University (geographers, economists, architects) has allowed to put a geographical analysis method into practice. This method has been assigned to optimice natural, profitable, demographic and cultural resources of this subregional valencian land from a several strategic lines which has been take into account his land´s singularities.

La sequía que padecen las tierras del sureste de la Península Ibérica ha devuelto a la actualidad la importancia que tiene este hecho natural para el desarrollo de las actividades humanas. Lejos del discurso catastrofista de la controvertida hipótesis del cambio climático planetario, en este estudio-comentario se ofrece una reflexión acerca de sus causas y consecuencias que, cada vez más, evidencian las limitaciones que introduce la aridez en este territorio en relación con la ausencia de una planificación racional de las actividades económicas (regadío, urbanización y turismo) coordinada con la previsión de unas actuaciones realistas sobre las disponibilidades hídricas. The drought that suffer the lands of the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula has returned to the present time the importance that has this natural fact for the development of the human activities. Far of the negative speech about the controverted hypothesis of the planetary climatic change, in this commentary study is offered a reflection about its causes and consequences which, increasingly evidence, the limitations that introduces the aridity in this territory in relationship to the absence of a rational planning of the economic activities (irrigable, urbanization and tourism), coordinated with the provision of some realistic performances on the water availabilities.

Tras el fracaso que supuso la tramitación del Anteproyecto de Plan Hidrológico Nacional (1993), la nueva iniciativa del Plan Hidrológico Nacional (2001) optó por un proceso de elaboración gradual, prolongado y con mayor rigor técnico. Se redujeron los trasvases y se prohibió la transformación en regadío con aguas trasvasadas en las cuencas receptoras. El Plan Hidrológico Nacional, aprobado por la Ley 10/2001, de 5 de julio, fue objeto de un intenso debate y participación pública. Esta tramitación contrasta con el expeditivo procedimiento seguido para la derogación del trasvase del Ebro a través del Programa A.G.U.A. mediante Real Decreto-Ley 2/2004, convertido luego en la Ley 11/2005. Todas estas cuestiones son objeto de análisis en este trabajo, con atención particular a las repercusiones que ha tenido en las regiones de Murcia y Valencia. Following the failure of the preliminary drafting of the National Hydrologic Plan (1993), the new initiative established in the National Hydrologic Plan (2001) contemplates a more gradual, prolonged and technically rigorous process. Transfers were reduced and water that had been transferred was prohibited from being used for irrigation. The National Hydrologic Plan, approved by Law 10/2001, dated 5 July, was subject to intense discussion and public participation. The preliminary draft contrasts with the express procedure used to repeal the transfer of the Ebro through the A.G.U.A. Programme by Royal Decree-Law 2/2004, which later became Law 11/2005. All these issues are analysed in this study, with particular attention paid to repercussions in the regions of Murcia and Valencia. Algunos resultados ofrecidos en este trabajo han sido elaborados en el marco del Proyecto de investigación «Modelos de desarrollo territorial y tipologías de consumo de agua potable en espacios turístico residenciales del litoral alicantino» (CSO2009-12772-C03-03) financiado por el Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología.

EnglishStatistical analysis of long temperature series made by the major observatories of Mediterranean Spain shows a significant warming trend, with an annual mean temperature rise of between 0.5°C and 1.2°C during the period 1870-1996. Nevertheless, this analysis is difficult because some non-climatic processes such as the urban effect and the changing sites of most of the meteorological stations must be taken into account. We have observed that a large part of the temperature increase may result from the urban effect. The comparison between urban and rural meteorological observatories in the 1940-1996 period allows a good estimation of the urban effect, too often neglected in research of this kind. In view of our results we may conclude that, after correcting for the urban effect, there has been little or no real increase of temperature between 1940 and 1996. The assumption of temperature stability in Mediterranean Spain should therefore not be rejected. francaisL'analyse statistique des longues series de mesures de temperature des principaux observatoires de l'Espagne mediterraneenne met en evidence une tendance significative au rechauffement, avec une augmentation de la temperature moyenne annuelle comprise entre 0,5 oC et 1,2 oC pour la periode 1870-1996. Mais certains processus non climatiques, comme l'urbanisation autour des postes et le changement de localisation de la plupart des stations, doivent etre pris en compte. Ainsi, une grande partie de la hausse de temperature observee pourrait resulter de l'effet de l'urbanisation. Pour la periode 1940-1996, la comparaison entre stations meteorologiques urbaines et stations meteorologiques rurales permet une bonne estimation de l'effet d'urbanisation, trop souvent neglige dans les etudes de ce type. Au vu de ces resultats, l'hypothese de la stabilite de la temperature dans l'Espagne mediterraneenne ne peut pas etre rejetee pour la periode 1940-1996.

Las secuencias de sequía, evento atmosférico propio de las tierras del sureste ibérico por su filiación subtropical, se constituyen en el riesgo climático que ocasiona más pérdidas económicas en la actividad agraria de este sector peninsular. Además, sus consecuencias suelen verse acrecentadas al coincidir con el desarrollo de «golpes de calor» que perjudican igualmente las cosechas. El análisis de las causas atmosféricas y de los efectos económicos y territoriales de ambos fenómenos meteorológicos son aspectos que aborda el presente escrito. The sequences of drought, a characterictic atmospheric event of the southeast iberian lands due to its subtropical relation, constitute the climatic risk which produces the mayority of economic losses in the agrarian activity of this peninsular area. Besides its consequences increase with the development of «heat waves» with damage equally the crops. The analysis of the atmospheric causes ant the economic ant territorial effects of these meteorological phenomena are aspects which this paper breachs.

Indoor positioning and navigation systems have attributes which make their use inadvisable in certain applications. Our main purpose is to investigate these issues in order to improve accessibility in Smart Cities. In the last decade, there are increasing efforts to develop a sustainable and precise indoor navigation system to be used in any situation. There are interesting proposals but they suffer from various constraints (accuracy, cost, complexity, etc), so the use of hybrid and targeted solutions is mandatory. In an effort to address these problems, in this study we will develop an affordable and accurate indoor location system. Firstly, we will use geodata from the the Open Data initiative of the Spanish Conference of University Rectors. After studying its data model, we will create new methods to automatically derive new geometric layers, useful for accessibility studies. Then, all relevant information will be published via standard protocols and web services. In the second phase of this project, we will design an indoor positioning network (Bluetooth, WiFi, etc) based on indoor mapping. Finally, this positioning and navigation system will be used for performing different mobility experiments from the Smart Cities perspective.