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Preservation of meat and meat products is important due to its short shelf life and perishability. The pastoralists of Northern Kenya processed and preserved traditional meat products for consumption. The traditional meat products are relished food both for nutritional and cultural heritage among the Borana pastoralists. The study was carried out to assess the microbial safety and chemical quality of traditional meat products. The samples were collected immediately after processing and transported in a cool box to the food laboratory for microbial analysis and determination of changes related to lipid oxidation during storage for seven weeks at ambient temperature and at refrigerated temperature (5 °C). Microbiological quality of the samples was assessed by Total Viable Count (TVC), Escherichia coli count, Staphylococcus aureus count and yeast and mold count. Result showed that Staphylococcus aureus, yeasts and molds were detected in the products and there was increase of Staphylococcus aureus count from (1.44 log10 CFU/g) to (2.28 log10 CFU/g)) during storage at ambient temperature for seven weeks. Samples stored at refrigerated 5oC showed less counts of microbial load. The peroxide value, acid value and thiobarbituric acid levels were below the value associated with meat spoilage during the expected shelf life. Reduction of moisture during drying of traditional meat products and cooking of meat at high temperature contributed towards reduction of microbial load. However, poor handling and post contamination may lead to poor microbial quality of traditional meat products.

Outlets for sexual health servicesare increasingly becoming a global public health concern in sexual reproductive health of the youth as they struggle to balance their pursuant and performance in education and the effect of their sexual behavior on their lives. Studies have indicated that access to basic sexual reproductive health services continue to jeopardize the health of the youth as they struggle to also cope up with the consequences associated with the growing health needs from emerging public health concerns. The Ministry of Health in Kenya is recording high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections including HIV amongst the youth. Urban residents have a significantly higher risk of HIV infections (7.2%) than rural residents (6.0%) A majority of annual new HIV/AIDS infections occur among youth aged 15-24 years, the majority of whom are in secondary school levels due to their high sexual activity. The main objective of this study was to determine outlets for sexual health services amongst youth in secondary schools in Mukuru slums in Nairobi. The study adopted a cross sectional descriptive design that utilized both quantitative and qualitative techniques of data collection. The study was conducted in three purposively selected secondary schools in Mukuru slum, Nairobi County amongst the youth aged 15 to 24 years. A sample size of 335 was determined and stratified sampling procedure was used. Data was collected using semi structured questionnaire and 6 focus group discussions which were both administered and conducted amongst the study population. This study received scientific and ethical approval from the Scientific Steering Committee at the Kenya Medical Research Institute. Participants were taken through all the consenting processes prior to their acceptance to participate in the study. The results show that there were more females (57.8%) respondents than males (42.2%). Many of the female respondents (81.1%) indicated that they had first sex before they turned 10 years than few male respondents (12.2%). About 50% of respondents visited private facilities to seek medication services. Among those who visited public hospitals, 27% of the respondents sought services for consultation, lab, and medicine while 13% of the respondents indicated that they visited traditional healers. There were many females (21.8%) who indicated that they visited private hospitals for STI treatment. However, the type of outlet or facility (p-value 0.000, IJSRED-International Journal of Scientific Research and Engineering Development

Aims: Iodine plays a key role in thyroid hormone production and functioning. Inadequate iodine intake results in iodine deficiency (ID) which impairs the normal functioning of the thyroid. The deficiency is responsible for damage to brain development, growth retardation, cretinism, and thyroid dysfunction. Millions of people have been condemned to a life of few prospects and continued underdevelopment due to ID. The study was conducted to assess iodine status among primary school children in the Mt. Elgon region and the impact of salt iodization on this status. Study Design: A school-based cross-sectional descriptive study to assess iodine status among primary school children was employed in the study. Study Area and Duration: The study was carried out in Kenya, Bungoma County, Mount Elgon Sub-County. The study period was between 27th November 2018 and 26th November 2019. Methodology: Healthy primary school children aged 6 to 12 years who met the inclusion criteria were included in the study. Spot urine samples were collected in schools, while water samples were collected from different water sources. Salt was collected from households (HH) and at distribution outlets. The Sandell Kolthoff reaction was used to analyse urine and water samples while salt was analysed using iodometric titration. Results: The median urinary iodine concentration (UIC) was 200.7 µg/l. Out of which 0.55% were severely deficient, 5.25% moderately deficient, 18.23% with a mild deficiency, 25.69% had adequate iodine levels, 22.38% had more than adequate, and 27.90% had excess iodine levels. Household and salt samples from different distribution outlets that conformed to set standards of iodization were 49.4% and 63.64%, respectively. Iodine was not detected in all the water samples collected. Conclusion: The study population was found to have adequate iodine based on the median UIC of 200.7 µg/l. However, there was a coexistence of both deficiency and excessive UIC and salt iodization within the population. No iodine was detected in the water samples in the region.

This chapter provides an overview of two case studies that examine stakeholder reactions toward iodine biofortification in Uganda. The first case applies the protection motivation theory and evaluates the intention of school heads and parents of school‐aged children to include iodine‐biofortified legumes in school feeding programs. The second case study takes a broader scope of stakeholder groups and applies the analytical hierarchy process, a multicriteria decision‐making tool, to understand the stakeholders' evaluation of the relative importance of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) factors in implementing agronomic iodine biofortification in Uganda. Results from the two cases demonstrate that stakeholders are generally optimistic about the iodine biofortification strategy to improve iodine intake and address the prevalent iodine deficiency disorders. Both cases provide insights into key factors that need to be considered in implementing iodine biofortification technology in a developing country.

BackgroundFocused antenatal care was recommended by the World Health Organization to mitigate negative pregnancy and birth outcomes. It requires that a woman seeks medical care at least four times in the course of her pregnancy if there are no complications. However, in the low income settings, women are not able to attend ANC early and for all the schedules because of the costs involved including medical fees. In 2017, Kenya included antenatal care in the package of free maternal services provided by the government. We aimed to examine the uptake of free antenatal care (FANC) services by women in a rural community.MethodsA cross-sectional design employing mixed methods was conducted among 400 pregnant women who attended antenatal services in eight health facilities in Siaya sub-county following the introduction of FANC in these facilities. The women were interviewed on services received the timing of these antenatal visits, the number of visits in the course of the pregnancy and the challenges to attending antenatal services. Participants’ characteristics were described using means and proportions. Uptake of FANC defined by the number of women who sought FANC, the timing of the visits and how frequently they attended was described using percentages/frequencies. Log-binomial regression model was used to identify socio-demographic factors associated with uptake of FANC among the women. In this analysis, attendance to ANC four times or more was the outcome variable.ResultsOur findings showed an increase in the uptake of FANC compared to published rates of uptake. Overall, 76.4% (n=400) of the women reported attending ANC four times or more. Over half (61.7%), of the women had their first ANC visit in the second and third trimester. Women who were not married were 1.5 times (PR=1.50; CI=1.16-1.93) more likely to complete 4+ FANC visits when compared to women who were married. Women who attended ANC for the first time in their second and third trimester were 41% (PR=0.59; CI=0.49-0.72) and 90% (PR=0.10; CI=0.03-0.37) respectively, less likely to complete the 4+ FANC visits, when compared to those who started ANC in the first trimester.Conclusion The findings indicate that when women do not have to pay for antenatal services, their attendance and compliance to the scheduled visits improves. Therefore, strategies aimed at optimizing maternal pregnancy outcomes should also invest in providing free maternal services. Other implications of the study are discussed.

Aims: To Determine antioxidant value and chemical groups in selected medicinal plants used for conditions associated with Herpes simplex and Herpes zoster infections in Mukhwa sub-location, Kakamega County, Kenya. Study Design: A qualitative ethnobotanical survey for plant identification and chemical analysis for antioxidant assay and chemical group detection. Place and Duration of Study: Plant samples were collected in Mukhwa sub-location in September 2014. Sample processing and chemical group detection was carried out at the Center of Traditional Medicine and Drug Research of Kenya Medical Research Institute. Antioxidant assay was carried out at the Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences of the Kenya Medical Training College. Methodology: All 12 Community Health Workers, comprising 7 females and 5 males, were interviewed for identification of plant species. Antioxidant assay was carried out using the 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) reduction assay and detection of flavonoids, terpenoids, alkanoids, saponins and phenols carried out using physicho-chemical methods. Results: Caesalpinia decapetala, Garcinia buchananii and Entada abyssinica, were the most potent sources of antioxidant with the concentration giving 50% DPPH reduction (RSa50) of 50, 20 and 10 µg/ml, respectively. The most abundant chemical groups were; alkaloids in Schkuhria pinnata, terpenoids in E. abyssinica, flavonoids in G. buchananii, the latter also contained the highest amount of phenols. Conclusion: The findings of antioxidant and chemical groups in selected medicinal plants support their use for HIV conditions.

PurposeThis paper aims to describe food insecurity status, food consumption patterns of households and nutritional status of families residing along the baobab belt in Kitui and Kilifi counties of Kenya. It also explores associations between these and household socio-demographic characteristics.Design/methodology/approachA cross-sectional study design was performed with a sample of 216 caregiver/child pairs interviewed. Tablet-based semi-structured questions were used to obtain information on socio-demographic characteristics of children (6-13 years) and caregivers. Food insecurity status was assessed using the household food insecurity experience scale. Information on food consumption was obtained from qualitative 24-h recall as a basis for calculating a household dietary diversity score. Data were also obtained from a non-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Anthropometric measurements of children and caregivers’ height and weight were taken to assess their nutritional status. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science version 24 and WHO AnthroPlus 1.0.4.FindingsThe majority (98.2 per cent) of the households were food insecurity despite 81.5 and 57.4 per cent in Kitui and Kilifi counties, respectively, owning baobab trees. About 32.1 per cent of the households had poor dietary diversity scores (< 4). The prevalence of stunting (28.6 per cent), wasting (11.6 per cent) and underweight (25 per cent) rates among children were high. A significant association was observed between the children stunting rates with their age (p= 0.027), and also with household’s food security status (p< 0.001). Of the caregivers, 14.8 per cent were underweight, 18.1 per cent were overweight and 8.8 per cent were obese. There was significant association between the nutrition status of the caregivers and gender of the children (p< 0.001) and also with stunting rates of children (p= 0.047).Originality/valueThe study provides data on the current food security status and food consumption patterns of households and nutritional status of families residing along the baobab belt in Kenya which are mostly areas of marginal agricultural potential. The findings indicate a need for appropriate dietary improvements.

Maize is the most widely consumed staple food by the Kenyan population. Its wide consumption and centralized processing make it an appropriate fortification vehicle to supply essential micronutrients to the population. The legislation was enacted in 2012 that makes it mandatory for all commercial maize mills in Kenya to fortify the maize flour with specified micronutrients as a public health effort to reduce the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies. However, there is limited information on the current status of maize milling and implementation of the flour fortification programme by these mills. A cross-sectional study was therefore carried out to characterize the commercial maize mills and determine the status of flour fortification in Kenya. Questionnaires were used to collect data. Information was obtained from 22 large-scale, 25 medium-scale and 31 small-scale mills. These mills had an installed capacity of 6084 metric tons/day of flour using roller and hammer mills. While all the large-scale mills implemented the recommended statutory flour fortification programs, only 45.8% of the medium and 24.1% of small-scale mills did so. There was evidence of weak quality management systems for fortified maize flour and most companies did not have trained mill operators. Regulatory monitoring was mainly done by the Kenya Bureau of Standards and the Ministry of Health. There is a need to enhance industry capacity in food fortification practices and fortification compliance. Key words: Fortification, maize flour, maize mills, mill characteristics.

Background: With enhanced rollout of anti-retroviral therapy (ART) following prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) and the associated burden of opportunistic infections in developing countries, human immunodeficiency virus-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (HIV-IRIS) may remain a public health area of major concern especially, in pregnancy. Ascertaining the association between maternal HIV infection and adverse maternal and birth related outcomes could be conflicted by the relationship between maternal-HIV- IRIS and the adverse pregnancy-fetal outcomes (APFOs) in HIV-infected mothers. We sought to estimate the incidence and determine possible predictors for adverse pregnancy-fetal outcomes with maternal-HIV-IRIS in ART naïve HIV infected pregnant women. Methodology: Subjects grouped in to IRIS exposed and non-IRIS exposed were followed from the end of first trimester for six and half months. Chi-square test was used to establish the association between the variables at p-value < 0.05. Regression analysis was performed to identify independent predictors of APFOs. Adjusted Relative Risk at 95% confidence interval was determined. Results: The IRIS exposed pregnant women, had a 26.47% adverse pregnancy-fetal outcomes cumulative incidence compared to 10.78% among IRIS non-exposed women. The APFO incidence rate estimate was 0.012 and 0.0045 per person’s week respectively. IRIS cases had 2.46 times the risk of experiencing an APFO compared to those who did not [OR=3; 95%CI: 1.4-6.4; P=.004], at bivariate analysis, not sustained at the multivariate analysis [AOR=1.6; 95%CI: 0.4-5.8; P = .508]. Multiple logistic regression dropped maternal HIV-IRIS and revealed; HIV-RNA viral load at baseline of above 50 copies/ml [AOR=2.7; 95%CI: 1.2-6.3; P=.017], Maternal placental syndrome(MPS) characterized by hypertensive event [AOR=0.1; 95%CI:0.0-1.0; P = .052] and mother’s general health during delivery [AOR= 4; 95%CI: 4.0:1.8-9.1;P=.001] as independent predictors of APFOs. Conclusion: There is a higher incidence of APFOs among maternal HIV-IRIS diagnosed pregnant women as compared to non-HIV maternal IRIS diagnosed pregnant women. In particular, MPS characterized by an hypertensive event, HIV-RNA viral load at baseline of above 50 copies/ml and mother’s general health during delivery are key predictors of an adverse pregnancy outcome. Interventions to reduce the associated risk predictors identified in this analysis should be studied for their effects on reducing APFOs.

Fortification of staple foods is a cost-effective strategy that has been used to reduce the prevalence of micronutrient deficiency in the population. National mandatory maize flour fortification legislation was introduced in Kenya in 2012 to help address micronutrient deficiencies among the vulnerable groups of the population. This study aimed to quantify the amount of vitamin A, vitamin B2, B3, B9, iron and zinc in maize flour and premixes, relative to the national fortification standard, EAS 768 and determine the stability of micronutrients in fortified maize flour under normal storage conditions experienced in Kenya. A total of 27 maize flour brands and 2 brands of maize flour premixes were procured from the market and analyzed for compliance with the national standards for vitamin A, vitamin B2, vitamin B3, vitamin B9, iron, and zinc. Losses of micronutrients in fortified maize flour stored at 25°C/RH 60% and 35°C/RH 75% for six months were also quantified. Overall, the level of compliance of fortified maize flour to national standards was low with only 11.1% of the samples complying in the micronutrients analyzed. According to the Government of Kenya, compliance is accorded to brands that comply in at least three micronutrients. Only 48.1% of the samples had complied in three or more of the micronutrients analyzed. Compliance status for specific micronutrients to national standards varied greatly with minerals having higher compliance levels than vitamins. About a fifth (18%) of the samples from the market did not comply for any micronutrient analyzed. Some samples had folate and retinol levels below detectable limits. The retention of the vitamins analyzed was significantly affected by storage conditions (temperature and relative humidity). Low retention was observed for storage at 35°C/RH 75% compared to 25°C/RH 60%. In conclusion, fortification of maize flour is still low in Kenya and there is a need to strengthen efforts towards improved compliance.

Introduction:pregnant women need access to skilled attendance at birth and emergency obstetric care (EmOC) to avert maternal deaths. While poor EmOC services may explain the high maternal mortality, inadequate knowledge of providers is also part of the problem. This forms the basis of this paper, in a setting where 50.2% of women deliver in a health facility but maternal mortality remains high at 531/100,000 live births, compared to the national average of 362/100,000 in Kenya. Methods:a facility based cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2018 with a set of knowledge questions extracted from the averting maternal death and disability toolkit. Providers knowledge for maternal and newborn health (MNH) was assessed by interviewing nurses on duty in the maternity units. Data were entered in Ms Access and exported to R version 3.6.2 for descriptive and logistic regression analysis. Ethical clearance was obtained from Kenya Medical Research Unit. Results:a total of 55 nurses were interviewed. Majority (71%) of the respondents were diploma nurses. The overall knowledge score for MNH among the providers was adequate with a score of (64%). Generally, the midwives and higher diploma nurses consistently scored higher than diploma nurses in all the topic areas of MNH. In the mixed linear regression, determinants of knowledge score were seen in provider-level variables. Conclusion:overall, the providers scores were higher on intrapartum and newborn care compared to scores on care for complications. We conclude that in-service training on EmOC to providers is critical to reduction of maternal mortality.

The study aimed to characterize phytochemical composition of C. maxima seeds and pulp. The ethanol and aqueous extract of C. maxima seeds and pulp were done using percolation method. The phytochemical composition of ethanol and aqueous extract were determined using methodology described by the association of official analytical chemists. Qualitative screening of both aqueous and ethanol seed and pulp extracts showed presence of alkaloids, flavanoids, phenolics, carbohydrates, tannins, saponins, terpenoids and proteins. The quantitative tests reported concentration of 0.336g/100g of phenols, 0.012g/100g flavanoids and 0.009g/100g tannins in seed aqueous extracts while 0.213g/100g, 0.175g/100g and 0.016/100g in pulp respectively. The levels of phenols, flavanoids and tannins reported in ethanol extracts were 0.277g/100g, 0.246g/100g and 0.010g/100g in pulp and 0.530g/100g, 0.252g/100g and 0.064g/100g in seed respectively. Saponins were present in ethanol extracts only. The percentage content of alkaloids was 4.9% in pulp and 5.97% in seed aqueous extracts while ethanol pulp and seed extracts was 9.49% and 9.74% respectively. All extracts showed significant levels of anti-oxidant activity at different concentration levels. The presence of these phytochemical compounds shows that C. maxima are a potential medicinal candidate that needs to be explored further for actual use as in pharmaceutical industry.

Vegetables provide nutrients, especially minerals and vitamins, and non-nutrient phytochemicals with health benefits. Iron, zinc and vitamin A deficiencies are common in most developing countries yet traditional vegetables that can provide these nutrients grow wildly in most areas. This study evaluated the nutrient contents, phytochemicals and the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activities of five traditional leafy vegetables grown in Malawi, namely Amaranth hybridus (Amaranth ssp.), Moringa oleifera ( Drum stick), Bidens pilosa (Black jack), Corchorus olitorius (Jute mallow) and Ipomea batatas (Sweet potato) leaves. Results from the present study show that beta-carotene ranged from 829.68 µg/100g to 5,791.64 µg/100g and Moringa oleifera had the highest concentration. Vitamin C content ranged from 7.93 mg/100g to 35.81 mg/100g and Ipomea batatas leaves had the highest concentration. Zinc concentrations ranged from 4.42 mg/100g to 10.59 mg/100g. Iron content ranged from 37.22 mg/100g to 48.21 mg/100g. Total phenolics content (TPC) ranged from 0.98 g/100g to 3.89 g/100g with Bidens pilosa leaves having the highest TPC (3.89±0.23 g/100g). Moringa oleifera and Bidens pilosa leaves had significantly higher (P Corchorus olitorius > Moringa oleifera > Ipomea batatas > Amaranth hybridus. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of these vegetables ranged from 12.5 µg/mL to 125 µg/mL. Lower IC50 values indicate higher radical scavenging activity. The results suggested that the traditional vegetables under the study can significantly contribute to improved human nutrition and have potential to reduce diseases related to oxidative stress.

The quantity and quality of complementary foods is one of the contributing factors to childhood under nutrition. Complementary food based on amaranth and sorghum grains was formulated. It was deemed to be superior nutritionally to the commonly used complementary foods in Kenya. Knowledge on storage and packaging is important for a long shelf life of the product to be achieved. Water activity and moisture content are key indicators of the stability of dried foods. To establish the proper storage conditions of the product, moisture sorption isotherms at 25 °C, 30 °C and 35 °C were determined over water activity range of 0.11–0.97 and data fitted with six sorption models. Water vapour permeability of common packaging materials was also determined at 25 °C and 35 °C and the data was used to predict the product’s shelf life. The product exhibited type two sorption isotherm according to Brunner classification an indication of monolayer-multilayer sorption behavior. The critical storage moisture content of the complementary food corresponding to 0.6 water activity a point of microbiological stability was found to be 7.5%. Based on Heiss–Eichner model, a shelf life of 1423 days at 25 °C can be achieved with product initial moisture content of 5 g/100 g and packaged in 110 µm thick aluminum pouch. The shelf life of the product was shortened two to three fold at 35 °C in comparison to storage at 25 °C.

Food preparation methods applied to African traditional vegetables vary greatly depending on preferences of various consumers. Vegetable amaranth is one of the most preferred vegetable, with high nutritional quality. The bioaccessibility of some minerals such as iron is, however, low since it is non-heme, and is also bound by anti-nutrients such as oxalates. This study aimed at evaluating the nutrient retention of amaranth vegetable dishes prepared using selected Kenyan traditional recipes, and to enhance the iron bioavailability of amaranth dishes using food preparation methods. Nutrient retentions of amaranth prepared by three common food methods were analyzed. In-vitro iron bioavailability of amaranth dishes with or without bioavailability enhancers as well as an amaranth meal incorporating a common maize meal staple food was also studied. The nutrient retentions of the various dishes used in this study was fairly high with at least 85% retention of minerals and an increase of up to 45% in three carotenoids. It can be concluded that incorporating vitamin C, adding an iron rich vegetable and boiling of the vegetable significantly improves the iron bioavailability and hence improves the iron uptake by the body. Incorporating lemon juice enhanced dialysable iron of the selected recipe by up to 66%. There was no significant (P≤0.05) effect by the amaranth components on the iron bioavailability of ugali. These methods could therefore be incorporated into household recipes to increase micronutrient intake.

Thin porridge from cereals and starchy tubers is a common complementary food in Sub Saharan Africa. It may be high in antinutrients, low in energy, and nutrient density hence inadequate in providing infants' high energy and nutrients requirements per unit body weight. Consequently, undernourishment levels among children under 5 years are high. Therefore, there is need to avail nutrient‐dense complementary foods especially for children in low‐resource settings. The study was aimed at developing a nutrient‐dense complementary food from amaranth and sorghum grains. Amaranth grain, a pseudocereal, though rarely used as a complementary food in Kenya has a higher nutritional quality than other staples. Plant‐based foods are known to have high levels of antinutrients. Steeping and germination were used to reduce the levels of antinutrients and enhance the bioavailability of minerals in the grains. Various steeped and germinated amaranth and sorghum grains formulations were made to find the ratio with the highest nutrient content and lowest antinutrient levels. The 90% amaranth‐sorghum grains formulation had significantly (F = 32.133, P

Different mechanisms responsible for the development of the hard-to-cook defect in common beans during storage, their soaking behavior and softening during thermal treatment have been previously suggested. However, these mechanisms have not been sufficiently confirmed by direct molecular evidence. This research aimed at gaining a detailed mechanistic insight into changes occurring in Canadian wonder bean pectic polysaccharides during storage, soaking and/or thermal treatment in different brine solutions in relation to the development and manifestation of the hard-to-cook (HTC) defect. Both fresh or easy-to-cook (ETC) and stored (HTC) bean samples were either soaked or soaked and thermally treated in demineralized water, solutions of Na2CO3 and CaCl2 salts followed by extraction of cell wall materials. Pectic polysaccharide properties examined included sugar composition, degree of methylesterification (DM), extractability and molar mass (MM). The DM of pectin from ETC and HTC beans was similar but low (

Background: In areas with incomplete salt iodization coverage, infants and children aged 6- 24 months weaning from breast milk and receiving complementary foods are at risk of iodine deficiency. However, few data exist on the risk of excessive iodine intake in this age group. Thyroglobulin (Tg) is a sensitive marker of iodine intake in school-age children and adults and may be used to estimate the optimal iodine intake range in infancy. The aim of this study was to assess the association of low and high iodine intakes with Tg and thyroid function in weaning infants. Methods: This multicenter cross-sectional study recruited infants aged 6-24 months (n = 1543 ; Mage = 12.2 ± 4.6 months) receiving breast milk with complementary foods, from seven countries in areas with previously documented deficient, sufficient, or excessive iodine intake in schoolchildren or pregnant women. Urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and Tg, total thyroxine, and thyrotropin were measured using dried blood spot testing. Results: Median UIC ranged from 48 μg/L (interquartile range 31-79 μg/L) to 552 μg/L (interquartile range 272-987 μg/L) across the study sites. Median Tg using dried blood spot testing was high (>50 μg/L) at estimated habitual iodine intakes 230 μg/day. Prevalence of overt thyroid disorders was low (

Sorghum, cowpea and baobab are underutilized drought-tolerant crops that are grown and occur in abundance in marginalized agricultural areas in Kenya. The objective of this study was to formulate and analyze the physical, nutritional and sensory attributes of baobab based ready-to-eat sorghum and cowpea blend snack bars. Popped sorghum, baked cowpeas and baobab pulp powder were blended in five different formulations (45:55:0; 50:45:5; 55:35:5; 55:35:10; 60:25:15; 65:15:20) to produce ready-to-eat (RTE) snack bars. The nutrient composition, physical properties and sensory qualities of the bars were analyzed and significant difference between means determined by Tukey test, at p

Acute excess iodine intake can damage the thyroid, but the effects of chronic excess iodine intake are uncertain. Few data exist for pregnant and lactating women and infants exposed to excessive iodine intake.This was a multicenter cross-sectional study. At study sites in rural Kenya and urban Tanzania previously reporting iodine excess in children, urinary iodine concentration (UIC), thyrotropin, total thyroxine, and thyroglobulin (Tg) were measured in school-age children (SAC), women of reproductive age, pregnant (PW) and lactating women, and breast-feeding and weaning infants. In a national study in Djibouti, UIC was measured in SAC and PW. At all sites, daily iodine intake was estimated based on UIC, and iodine concentration was measured in household salt and drinking water.The total sample size was 4636: 1390, 2048, and 1198 subjects from Kenya, Tanzania, and Djibouti, respectively. In Kenya and Tanzania: (i) median UIC was well above thresholds for adequate iodine nutrition in all groups and exceeded the threshold for excess iodine intake in SAC; (ii) iodine concentrations40 mg of iodine/kg were found in approximately 55% of household salt samples; (iii) iodine concentrations ≥10 μg/L were detected in 9% of drinking water samples; (iv) Tg was elevated in all population groups, but the prevalence of thyroid disorders was negligible, except that 5-12% of women of reproductive age had subclinical hyperthyroidism and 10-15% of PW were hypothyroxinemic. In Djibouti: (i) the median UIC was 335 μg/L (interquartile range [IQR] = 216-493 μg/L) in SAC and 265 μg/L (IQR = 168-449 μg/L) in PW; (ii) only 1.6% of Djibouti salt samples (n = 1200) were adequately iodized (15 mg/kg); (iii) the median iodine concentration in drinking water was 92 μg/L (IQR = 37-158 μg/L; n = 77). In all countries, UIC was not significantly correlated with salt or water iodine concentrations.Although iodine intake was excessive and Tg concentrations were elevated, there was little impact on thyroid function. Chronic excess iodine intake thus appears to be well tolerated by women, infants, and children. However, such high iodine intake is unnecessary and should be avoided. Careful evaluation of contributions from both iodized salt and groundwater iodine is recommended before any review of iodization policy is considered.

Meat is a highly valued food among the Borana pastoralist community in Northern Kenya Borana produce a number of traditionally preserved beef and goat meat products Although these traditional products are widely appreciated there is concern about their nutritional quality especially because some of them are preserved with fats and other ingredients Thus the objectives of this study were to characterize the traditional meat product processes and to establish their nutrient profile and shelf life stability Samples were collected from study sites and analyzed in the laboratory Results showed that moisture contents ranged from to crude protein contents ranged from to while crude fat ranged from to Calcium magnesium iron potassium ranged from mg g mg g mg g and mg g respectively while riboflavin and niacin ranged from mg g and mg g respectively The fatty acid composition showed that beef and goat koche contained good amount of monounsaturated oleic acid at mean levels of and respectively The peroxide value acid value and thiobarbituric acid levels were below the value associated with meat spoilage during the expected shelf life Hence the traditional processed meat products could improve the food security of Borana communities due to its excellent nutrient source for a balanced meal

Despite the availability of novel strategies to prevent micronutrient malnutrition, such as biofortification, limited understanding of stakeholders often hampers their success. We build upon the existing literature on protection motivations (PMT) and technology acceptance (TAM) to develop an integrated PMTAM model for analyzing stakeholders' reactions, on both the supply and demand sides. Regarding the latter, the case of the iodine biofortified food chain is used to evaluate African households' interest. All model constructs, and threat appraisal in particular, are decisive in determining the uptake of biofortification, while also social demographics and own nutrition status play an important role.

The importance of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) in addressing food insecurity cannot be underestimated. However, their utilization is hampered by development of the hard-to-cook (HTC) defect, i.e., the inability of cotyledons to soften sufficiently within a reasonable time during cooking, the presence of flatulence causing oligosaccharides, the antinutrients and the low digestibility of macronutrients. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of storage conditions (time, temperature and relative humidity) on pectic polysaccharides of selected common bean varieties during the evolution of the hard cook problem. First, alcohol insoluble residue (AIR) was extracted from the bean flour. The AIR was fractionated into water, chelator and Na2CO3-soluble pectin fractions and a hemicellulose fraction. The galacturonic acid content, neutral sugars, degree of methylesterfication (DM), degree of acetylation (DAc) and molar mass distribution for pectin fractions were determined. In addition, filterable residual protein in various fractions was estimated. Results on the acidic and neutral sugars revealed that common beans contained highly branched, arabinose-rich pectic polysaccharides. Storage of common beans for more than 4months at high relative humidity (83%) and high temperature (45°C) resulting in HTC development showed a decrease in pectin extractability in water paralleled by an increase in the alkaline-soluble fraction. Other pectin characteristics such as DM and DAc showed minor variations upon storage of beans. The hydrolysis of both starch and proteins before AIR extraction decreased with increasing storage time, temperature and relative humidity. The increase in residual starch and protein might be linked to the protein–starch hypothesis where predominance of protein denaturation leads to restricted starch gelatinization. The results reveal that the contribution of pectic polysaccharides to development of HTC defect during the storage of Canadian wonder and Red haricot common beans at elevated temperature and relative humidity is due to reduced pectin solubility. However, the influence of starch and proteins seems evident. ispartof: Food Research International vol:76 issue:P1 pages:105-113 status: published

Objective/Purpose: To use Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) to evaluate stakeholders' intention to adopt iodine biofortified foods as an alternative means to improve children's iodine status and overall school performance. Methods: A survey was administered with 360 parents of primary school children and 40 school heads. Protection motivation is measured through matching the cognitive processes they use to evaluate iodine deficiency (threat appraisal), as well as iodine biofortified foods to reduce the threat (coping appraisal). Data were analyzed through Robust (Cluster) regression analysis. Results: Gender had a significant effect on coping appraisal for school heads, while age, education, occupation, income, household size and knowledge were significant predictors of threat, coping appraisal and/or protection motivation intention among parents. Nevertheless, in the overall protection motivation model, only two coping factors, namely self-efficacy (parents) and response cost (school heads), influenced the intention to adopt iodine biofortified foods. Conclusion: School feeding programs incorporating iodine biofortification should strive to increase not only consumer knowledge about iodine but also its association to apparent deficiency disorders, boost self-efficacy and ensure that the costs incurred are not perceived as barriers of adoption. The insignificant threat appraisal effects lend support for targeting future communication on biofortification upon the strategies itself, rather than on the targeted micronutrient deficiency. PMT, and coping factors in particular, seem to be valuable in assessing intentions to adopt healthy foods. Nevertheless, research is needed to improve the impacts of threat appraisal factors.

The occurrence of the hard-to-cook (HTC) defect in legumes is characterized by the inability of cotyledons to soften during the cooking process. This phenomenon may be influenced by pectin properties. The objective of this study was to characterize the pectic polysaccharides comprised in the alcohol insoluble residue (AIR) extracted from easy-to-cook (Rose coco) and hard-to-cook (Pinto) common beans. This would provide an insight in the relationship between the pectin properties and HTC defect. The AIR was extracted from raw, half-cooked hard, half-cooked soft and fully-cooked bean samples. Subsequently, it was fractionated into water-, chelator- and Na2CO3-soluble pectin fractions and a hemicellulose fraction. For the AIR and the pectin fractions, determination of the galacturonic acid content, neutral sugars, degree of methylesterfication (DM), degree of acetylation (DAc) and molar mass (MM) distribution was performed. Results on the pectin fractions, MM distribution and pectin content profile, revealed that Rose coco pectin generally showed higher pectin solubility than Pinto. Neutral sugar profiles indicated that Pinto contained higher amounts of branched pectin (i.e. arabinans) than Rose coco. There was no difference between the DM of Pinto and Rose coco, however, the DAc was higher in Rose coco. In conclusion, the differences in pectin structure and solubility properties between easy- and hard-to-cook common beans might contribute to the differences in their cooking behavior.

This study was carried out to evaluate the effects of boiling and wet frying on nutritional and antinutrients content of Amaranth hybridus, Moringa oleifera, Bidens pilosa (black jack), Corchorus olitorius (Jute mallow) and Ipomea batatas (sweet potato) leaves. The edible portions of the vegetables were either boiled or wet fried for ten minutes then dried alongside the raw vegetables under the shade. Crude fats, minerals, vitamins and antinutrients were determined in the dried materials. Wet frying increased the oil content of the vegetables by a range of 15.49% to 28.40 % and was hence associated with lower % ash and mineral contents. Wet frying significantly reduced (P≤0.05) beta-carotene in all the vegetables except in jute mallow. Boiling had no significant effect on beta-carotene in most of the vegetables. Boiling significantly reduced (P≤0.05) ascorbic acid in all the vegetables while wet frying preserved ascorbic acid in all the vegetables. Both boiling and wet frying significantly reduced (P≤0.05) oxalates in all the vegetables except in black jack. Both boiling and wet frying significantly (P≤0.05) reduced the concentration of phytates in most of the vegetables. However, boiling was more effective in reducing the amount of phytates. Boiling reduced higher concentrations of tannins in all the vegetables as compared to wet frying. Boiling was associated with better retention of minerals and beta-carotene, and greater reduction of antinutrients in most of the vegetables. Wet frying was more advantageous in retaining vitamin C. The different species showed differences in retention of various minerals and vitamins.

Introduction in 2012, the Government of Kenya amended the Food, Drug and Chemical Substances Act to make the fortification of maize and wheat flour with folic acid mandatory. We assessed folate deficiency, awareness and use of folic acid fortified flour among pregnant women receiving antenatal care (ANC) at a clinic at Pumwani Maternity Hospital, Kenya, 2015. Methods we conducted a cross-sectional survey at Pumwani Maternity Hospital between October and November 2014. We enrolled pregnant women who received ANC and interviewed them using a semi-structured questionnaire after obtaining informed consent. Blood samples were collected from all study participants and serum folate level was analyzed by electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Folate deficiency was defined as serum folate of < 10nmols/L and borderline folate deficiency was defined as serum folate of between 10nmols/L and 15nmols/L. Results among the 247 study participants, two (1%) had folate deficiency. One hundred and seventy-nine (73.4%) had heard about folic acid, but only 56 (23%) had heard about folic acid fortified flour. Overall, 198 (80%) study participants consumed fortified brands of maize flour and 205 (84%) consumed fortified brands of wheat flour; only four (2%) and two (1%) of study participants consumed specific brands of maize and wheat flour respectively because they were fortified. Conclusion the prevalence of folate deficiency was low and this may have been because of the availability of fortification programs. Although there was limited knowledge of fortified flour, utilization was high. The Kenyan Ministry of Health should enforce implementation of the legislation on maize flour and wheat flour fortification by all milling industries.

Obesity is on the rise in developing countries, especially in urban areas. In this study, a cross-sectional study was conducted in two divisions in Nairobi province to determine the prevalence of and some risk factors associated with overweight and obesity among school children in Nairobi, Kenya. It involved 344 school children aged 9-14 years drawn from four randomly selected public and private primary schools. Weight and height were measured and body mass index was calculated. Nutrition status was determined using the World Health Organization age and gender specific BMI-for-age Z-scores (BAZ). The chi-square test was used to determine the relationship between overweight/obesity and selected socio-demographic characteristics. Complete anthropometric measurements were available for 321 children. Prevalence of combined overweight and obesity (BAZ > +1SD) was 19.0%, with prevalence being higher among girls (21.0%) than boys (16.9%) (p = 0.632). The prevalence among children in private schools was significantly higher (29.0%) than among those in public schools (11.5%) (p = 0.000). In addition, being a single child (p = 0.020), birth order (p = 0.017), mother’s occupation (p = 0.023) and type of residence (p = 0.028) were positively associated with overweight/obesity. The prevalence of overweight/obesity determined in this study is high and is a public health concern, with girls particularly at risk of becoming overweight.

Background Shigellosis is the major cause of bloody diarrhoea worldwide and is endemic in most developing countries. In Kenya, bloody diarrhoea is reported weekly as part of priority diseases under Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response System (IDSR) in the Ministry of Health. Methods We conducted a case control study with 805 participants (284 cases and 521 controls) between January and December 2012 in Kilifi and Nairobi Counties. Kilifi County is largely a rural population whereas Nairobi County is largely urban. A case was defined as a person of any age who presented to outpatient clinic with acute diarrhoea with visible blood in the stool in six selected health facilities in the two counties within the study period. A control was defined as a healthy person of similar age group and sex with the case and lived in the neighbourhood of the case. Results The main presenting clinical features for bloody diarrhoea cases were; abdominal pain (69 %), mucous in stool (61 %), abdominal discomfort (54 %) and anorexia (50 %). Pathogen isolation rate was 40.5 % with bacterial and protozoal pathogens accounting for 28.2 % and 12.3 % respectively. Shigella was the most prevalent bacterial pathogen isolated in 23.6 % of the cases while Entamoeba histolytica was the most prevalent protozoal pathogen isolated in 10.2 % of the cases. On binary logistic regression, three variables were found to be independently and significantly associated with acute bloody diarrhoea at 5 % significance level; storage of drinking water separate from water for other use (OR = 0.41, 95 % CI 0.20–0.87, p = 0.021), washing hands after last defecation (OR = 0.24, 95 % CI 0.08–.076, p = 0.015) and presence of coliforms in main source water (OR = 2.56, CI 1.21–5.4, p = 0.014). Rainfall and temperature had strong positive correlation with bloody diarrhoea. Conclusion The main etiologic agents for bloody diarrhoea were Shigella and E. histolytica. Good personal hygiene practices such as washing hands after defecation and storing drinking water separate from water for other use were found to be the key protective factors for the disease while presence of coliform in main water source was found to be a risk factor. Implementation of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) interventions is therefore key in prevention and control of bloody diarrhoea.

As a consequence of the growing interest in, and development of, various types of food with nutritional benefits, the modern consumer views their kitchen cabinet more and more as a medicine cabinet. Given that consumer evaluation of food is considered key to the successful production, marketing and finally consumption of food, a procedure commonly used in medical fields was employed to systematically review and summarize evidence of consumer evaluation studies on nutritious foods. The focus is primarily on consumer understanding of nutritious food and the underlying determinants of consumer evaluation. Our results highlight four groups of key determinants: (1) nutrition knowledge and information; (2) attitudes, beliefs, perceptions and behavioural determinants; (3) price, process and product characteristics; and (4) socio-demographics. The findings also point to the importance of understanding consumer acceptance as one many concepts in the consumer evaluation process, and provide support for developing appropriate strategies for improving health and well-being of consumers.

The objective of this study was to determine the level of arsenic in the environment and in foods consumed around Kisumu, and compare these levels with the recommended WHO maximum limits. Arsenic was determined in water samples from Lake Victoria, River Nyamasaria, tap water as well as in the soil samples. It was also determined in staple foods including maize, beans, fish and vegetables. Arsenic content in the samples was determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. The results showed that arsenic content in the water and soil ranged from 0.00 to 8.30 ng/100 ml and 12.39 to 24.36 � g/100 g, respectively, and the mean arsenic levels in all water and soil samples were within the safe WHO limits for arsenic. The arsenic content in the maize and bean samples ranged from 5.21 to 7.03 � g/100 g. The arsenic content in the vegetables and fish ranged from 2.89 to 7.34 and 4.31 to 7.66 � g/100 g, respectively. The arse- nic content in all the food samples were also within the safe WHO arsenic limits. However, there were variations in arse- nic contents between the species of fish studied. The arsenic content was significantly higher in soil samples in compari- son to water samples (p