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Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-δ is a nuclear receptor that functions to maintain metabolic homeostasis, regulate cell growth, and limit the development of excessive inflammation during immune responses. Previously, we reported that PPAR-δ-deficient mice develop a more severe clinical course of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE); however, it was difficult to delineate the role that microglia played in this disease phenotype since PPAR-δ-deficient mice exhibited a number of immune defects that enhanced CNS inflammation upstream of microglia activation. Here, we specifically investigated the role of PPAR-δ in microglia during EAE by using mice where excision of a floxed Ppard allele was driven by expression of a tamoxifen (TAM)-inducible CX3C chemokine receptor 1 promoter-Cre recombinase transgene (Cx3cr1CreERT2: Ppardfl/fl). We observed that by 30 days of TAM treatment, Cx3cr1CreERT2: Ppardfl/fl mice exhibited Cre-mediated deletion primarily in microglia and this was accompanied by efficient knockdown of Ppard expression in these cells. Upon induction of EAE, TAM-treated Cx3cr1CreERT2: Ppardfl/fl mice presented with an exacerbated course of disease compared to TAM-treated Ppardfl/fl controls. Histopathological and magnetic resonance (MR) studies on the spinal cord and brains of EAE mice revealed increased Iba-1 immunoreactivity, axonal injury and CNS tissue loss in the TAM-treated Cx3cr1CreERT2: Ppardfl/fl group compared to controls. In early EAE, a time when clinical scores and the infiltration of CD45+ leukocytes was equivalent between Cx3cr1CreERT2: Ppardfl/fl and Ppardfl/fl mice, Ppard-deficient microglia exhibited a more reactive phenotype as evidenced by a shorter maximum process length and lower expression of genes associated with a homeostatic microglia gene signature. In addition, Ppard-deficient microglia exhibited increased expression of genes associated with reactive oxygen species generation, phagocytosis and lipid clearance, M2-activation, and promotion of inflammation. Our results therefore suggest that PPAR-δ has an important role in microglia in limiting bystander tissue damage during neuroinflammation. more...

Dopamine, a major neurotransmitter, plays a role in a wide range of brain sensorimotor functions. Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia are two major human neuropsychiatric disorders typically associated with dysfunctional dopamine activity levels, which can be alleviated through the druggability of the dopaminergic systems. Meanwhile, several studies suggest that optimal brain dopamine activity levels are also significantly impacted in other serious neurological conditions, notably stroke, but this has yet to be fully appreciated at both basic and clinical research levels. This is of utmost importance as there is a need for better treatments to improve recovery from stroke. Here, we discuss the state of knowledge regarding the modulation of dopaminergic systems following stroke, and the use of dopamine boosting therapies in animal stroke models to improve stroke recovery. Indeed, studies in animals and humans show stroke leads to changes in dopamine functioning. Moreover, evidence from animal stroke models suggests stimulation of dopamine receptors may be a promising therapeutic approach for enhancing motor recovery from stroke. With respect to the latter, we discuss the evidence for several possible receptor-linked mechanisms by which improved motor recovery may be mediated. One avenue of particular promise is the subtype-selective stimulation of dopamine receptors in conjunction with physical therapy. However, results from clinical trials so far have been more mixed due to a number of potential reasons including, targeting of the wrong patient populations and use of drugs which modulate a wide array of receptors. Notwithstanding these issues, it is hoped that future research endeavors will assist in the development of more refined dopaminergic therapeutic approaches to enhance stroke recovery. more...