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A promising approach for supplementing petroleum-derived fuels to support reductions in green-house gas emissions is to convert abundant biomass feedstocks into renewable carbon-rich oils using pyr...

Background Multiple analytical methods have been developed to determine the ratios of aromatic lignin units, particularly the syringyl/guaiacyl (S/G) ratio, of lignin biopolymers in plant cell walls. Chemical degradation methods such as thioacidolysis produce aromatic lignin units that are released from certain linkages and may induce chemical changes rendering it difficult to distinguish and determine the source of specific aromatic lignin units released, as is the case with nitrobenzene oxidation methodology. NMR methods provide powerful tools used to analyze cell walls for lignin composition and linkage information. Pyrolysis-mass spectrometry methods are also widely used, particularly as high-throughput methodologies. However, the different techniques used to analyze aromatic lignin unit ratios frequently yield different results within and across particular studies, making it difficult to interpret and compare results. This also makes it difficult to obtain meaningful insights relating these measurements to other characteristics of plant cell walls that may impact biomass sustainability and conversion metrics for the production of bio-derived fuels and chemicals. Results The authors compared the S/G lignin unit ratios obtained from thioacidolysis, pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry (py-MBMS), HSQC liquid-state NMR and solid-state (ss) NMR methodologies of pine, several genotypes of poplar, and corn stover biomass. An underutilized approach to deconvolute ssNMR spectra was implemented to derive S/G ratios. The S/G ratios obtained for the samples did not agree across the different methods, but trends were similar with the most agreement among the py-MBMS, HSQC NMR and deconvoluted ssNMR methods. The relationship between S/G, thioacidolysis yields, and linkage analysis determined by HSQC is also addressed. Conclusions This work demonstrates that different methods using chemical, thermal, and non-destructive NMR techniques to determine native lignin S/G ratios in plant cell walls may yield different results depending on species and linkage abundances. Spectral deconvolution can be applied to many hardwoods with lignin dominated by S and G units, but the results may not be reliable for some woody and grassy species of more diverse lignin composition. HSQC may be a better method for analyzing lignin in those species given the wealth of information provided on additional aromatic moieties and bond linkages. Additionally, trends or correlations in lignin characteristics such as S/G ratios and lignin linkages within the same species such as poplar may not necessarily exhibit the same trends or correlations made across different biomass types. Careful consideration is required when choosing a method to measure S/G ratios and the benefits and shortcomings of each method discussed here are summarized.

The design of nanoparticles (NPs) with tailored morphologies and finely tuned electronic and physical properties has become a key strategy for controlling selectivity and improving conversion effic...

Two-dimensional (2D) and 3D through-space 13C-13C homonuclear spin-diffusion techniques are powerful solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) tools for extracting structural information from 13C-enriched biomolecules, but necessarily long acquisition times restrict their applications. In this work, we explore the broad utility and underutilized power of a chemical shift-selective one-dimensional (1D) version of a 2D 13C-13C spin-diffusion solid-state NMR technique. The method, which is called 1D dipolar-assisted rotational resonance (DARR) difference, is applied to a variety of biomaterials including lignocellulosic plant cell walls, microcrystalline peptide fMLF, and black widow dragline spider silk. 1D 13C-13C spin-diffusion methods described here apply in select cases in which the 1D 13C solid-state NMR spectrum displays chemical shift-resolved moieties. This is analogous to the selective 1D nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY) experiment utilized in liquid-state NMR as a faster (1D instead of 2D) and often less ambiguous (direct sampling of the time domain data, coupled with increased signal averaging) alternative to 2D NOESY. Selective 1D 13C-13C spin-diffusion methods are more time-efficient than their 2D counterparts such as proton-driven spin diffusion (PDSD) and dipolar-assisted rotational resonance. The additional time gained enables measurements of 13C-13C spin-diffusion buildup curves and extraction of spin-diffusion time constants TSD, yielding detailed structural information. Specifically, selective 1D DARR difference buildup curves applied to 13C-enriched hybrid poplar woody stems confirm strong spatial interaction between lignin and acetylated xylan polymers within poplar plant secondary cell walls, and an interpolymer distance of ∼0.45-0.5 nm was estimated. Additionally, Tyr/Gly long-range correlations were observed on isotopically enriched black widow spider dragline silks.

Comprehensive analysis of the molecular weight distribution of raw and catalytic fast pyrolysis oils derived from biomass remains a key technical hurdle to understanding oil quality as it relates to downstream use and multiple methods may be necessary to accurately represent all components present. Here, we report the molecular weight distribution metrics of fast pyrolysis (FP) and catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP) oils as determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) combined with UV-diode array (UV), differential refractive index (RI), and multi-angle laser light scattering (MALS) detection. The measured molar mass distributions revealed that FP oil consisted of a higher proportion of larger products relative to the low molecular weight products contained in the CFP oil. GPC/RI and UV methods showed FP oil to have higher weight-average molecular weight (Mw) and number-average molecular weight (Mn) than CFP oil based on elution time. However, GPC/MALS, determined the two oils to have similar overall molecular weight distribution metrics (Mw and Mn) and yielded values significantly higher than those determined by RI and UV detectors relative to external standards. Overall, the use of a multiple detection GPC method could enable a more accurate comparison and determination of true molecular weight metrics of bio-oils.

Biomass recalcitrance, the inherent resistance of plants towards deconstruction, negatively affects the viability of biorefineries. This trait is not only dictated by the properties of the biomass but also by the conversion system used and its interactions with specific features of the biomass. Here, biomass recalcitrance to anaerobic digestion (AD) was assessed using a biomethanation potential (BMP) assay. Plant material (n = 94) was selected from a large population of natural Salix viminalis accessions, previously evaluated for biomass recalcitrance using hydrothermal pretreatment–enzymatic hydrolysis. Correlations between yields from the two biological conversion systems were evaluated, as well as the influence of biomass compositional features, analyzed by pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry (py-MBMS), and other biomass physical properties on conversion performance. BMP values averaged 198.0 Nml CH4/g biomass after 94 days, ranging from 28.6 to 245.9. S lignin and carbohydrate-derived spectral features were positively correlated with performance under both systems, whereas G lignin, p-coumaric acid, and ferulic acid-derived ions were negatively correlated with yields and rates. Most spectral features were more strongly correlated with enzymatic hydrolysis yields compared to methane production. For early-stage methane production and rate, recalcitrance factors were similar compared to enzymatic hydrolysis, with weaker correlations observed at later timepoints. The results suggest that although variation in methane potential was considerably lower than enzymatic hydrolysis yields, a reduced recalcitrance under this system will still be of importance to improve early conversion rates. Spectral features of low methane-producing samples indicate the presence of inhibitory substances, warranting further study.

The rapid analysis of biopolymers including lignin and sugars in lignocellulosic biomass cell walls is essential for the analysis of the large sample populations needed for identifying heritable genetic variation in biomass feedstocks for biofuels and bioproducts. In this study, we reported the analysis of cell wall lignin content, syringyl/guaiacyl (S/G) ratio, as well as glucose and xylose content by high-throughput pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry (py-MBMS) for3,600 samples derived from hundreds of accessions of

High-throughput analysis of biomass is necessary to ensure consistent and uniform feedstocks for agricultural and bioenergy applications and is needed to inform genomics and systems biology models. Pyrolysis followed by mass spectrometry such as molecular beam mass spectrometry (py-MBMS) analyses are becoming increasingly popular for the rapid analysis of biomass cell wall composition and typically require the use of different data analysis tools depending on the need and application. Here, the authors report the py-MBMS analysis of several types of lignocellulosic biomass to gain an understanding of spectral patterns and variation with associated biomass composition and use machine learning approaches to classify, differentiate, and predict biomass types on the basis of py-MBMS spectra. Py-MBMS spectra were also corrected for instrumental variance using generalized linear modeling (GLM) based on the use of select ions relative abundances as spike-in controls. Machine learning classification algorithms e.g., random forest, k-nearest neighbor, decision tree, Gaussian Naïve Bayes, gradient boosting, and multilayer perceptron classifiers were used. The k-nearest neighbors (k-NN) classifier generally performed the best for classifications using raw spectral data, and the decision tree classifier performed the worst. After normalization of spectra to account for instrumental variance, all the classifiers had comparable and generally acceptable performance for predicting the biomass types, although the k-NN and decision tree classifiers were not as accurate for prediction of specific sample types. Gaussian Naïve Bayes (GNB) and extreme gradient boosting (XGB) classifiers performed better than the k-NN and the decision tree classifiers for the prediction of biomass mixtures. The data analysis workflow reported here could be applied and extended for comparison of biomass samples of varying types, species, phenotypes, and/or genotypes or subjected to different treatments, environments, etc. to further elucidate the sources of spectral variance, patterns, and to infer compositional information based on spectral analysis, particularly for analysis of data without a priori knowledge of the feedstock composition or identity.

Two-dimensional (2D) and 3D through-space

The analyses of thermochemically derived bio-oil properties and composition are challenging due to the diversity of compounds present and the reactivity of the oils. There are currently a variety o...

Two catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP) oils (bottom/heavy fraction) were analyzed in various solvents that are used in common analytical methods (nuclear magnetic resonance – NMR, gas chromatography – GC, gel permeation chromatography – GPC, thermogravimetric analysis – TGA) for oil characterization and speciation. A more accurate analysis of the CFP oils can be obtained by identification and exploitation of solvent miscibility characteristics. Acetone and tetrahydrofuran can be used to completely solubilize CFP oils for analysis by GC and tetrahydrofuran can be used for traditional organic GPC analysis of the oils. DMSO-d6 can be used to solubilize CFP oils for analysis by 13C NMR. The fractionation of oils into solvents that did not completely solubilize the whole oils showed that miscibility can be related to the oil properties. This allows for solvent selection based on physico-chemical properties of the oils. However, based on semi-quantitative comparisons of the GC chromatograms, the organic solvent fractionation schemes did not speciate the oils based on specific analyte type. On the other hand, chlorinated solvents did fractionate the oils based on analyte size to a certain degree. Unfortunately, like raw pyrolysis oil, the matrix of the CFP oils is complicated and is not amenable to simple liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) or solvent fractionation to separate the oils based on the chemical and/or physical properties of individual components. For reliable analyses, for each analytical method used, it is critical that the bio-oil sample is both completely soluble and also not likely to react with the chosen solvent. The adoption of the standardized solvent selection protocols presented here will allow for greater reproducibility of analysis across different users and facilities.

Softwood is an abundant resource; however, currently its utilization for bioconversion to obtain platform sugars is limited. Pinus taeda trees which were genetically modified to either produce S lignin or to decrease lignin content were characterized with a suite of analytic techniques. Syringyl lignin was visualized in the secondary xylem of one genetic line with Maule staining. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance identified the S lignin units were coupled into the lignin through β-O-4 linkages, and thioacidolysis measured approximately 13% S lignin content in the same sample. Reductions of the lignin of as much as 33% were observed in the transgenics. To better understand how these modifications affect bioconversion, their amenability to hot water and dilute acid pretreatments and enzymatic hydrolysis was evaluated. Lignin reductions resulted in 1.9–3.2-fold increases in glucose release compared to the control. However, no apparent benefit was observed by S lignin incorporation at the concentrations reported in this study. These results highlight the potential for softwood cell wall properties to be improved for bioenergy/biochemical applications.

Thioacidolysis is a method used to measure the relative content of lignin monomers bound by β‐O‐4 linkages. Current thioacidolysis methods are low‐throughput as they require tedious steps for reaction product concentration prior to analysis using standard GC methods. A quantitative thioacidolysis method that is accessible with general laboratory equipment and uses a non‐chlorinated organic solvent and is tailored for higher‐throughput analysis is reported. The method utilizes lignin arylglycerol monomer standards for calibration, requires 1–2 mg of biomass per assay and has been quantified using fast‐GC techniques including a Low Thermal Mass Modular Accelerated Column Heater (LTM MACH). Cumbersome steps, including standard purification, sample concentrating and drying have been eliminated to help aid in consecutive day‐to‐day analyses needed to sustain a high sample throughput for large screening experiments without the loss of quantitation accuracy. The method reported in this manuscript has been quantitatively validated against a commonly used thioacidolysis method and across two different research sites with three common biomass varieties to represent hardwoods, softwoods, and grasses.

The conversion of fatty acids and triglycerides to fuel-like hydrocarbons was investigated over a Ni–Al layered double hydroxide catalyst and over 20% Ni/Al2O3 for comparison purposes. Both catalytic performance and the extent of catalyst fouling were found to show a marked dependence on the hydrogen partial pressure used during reaction and on the Ni-specific surface area of the catalyst employed. The amenability of a representative spent catalyst to regeneration via calcination in air was also demonstrated. The regenerated catalyst was observed to outperform the fresh formulation when tested for activity in the conversion of lipids to fuel-like hydrocarbons. This is attributed to the formation of strong basic sites – which are capable of catalyzing the deoxygenation of lipids – during the regeneration process. The fact that inexpensive Ni-based catalysts capable of affording good yields of fuel-like hydrocarbons can be regenerated by treatment in hot air makes these formulations interesting from an industrial standpoint. Results suggest that the conversion of triglycerides to fuel-like hydrocarbons is intermediated by fatty acids and that the conversion of fatty acids – either as the reaction feed or as reaction intermediates – to hydrocarbons proceeds via aldehyde and/or fatty acid ester intermediates.

Pyrolysis-GC/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to analyze the thermal decomposition of several endocarp sources, namely, coconut shells, walnut shells, peach pits, and olive pits, as well as their respective lignin fractions. To determine whether extraction procedures influenced pyrolysate composition and thermal decomposition processes, lignin was extracted from these feedstocks using two different procedures based on the use of formic acid and sulfuric acid (National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) laboratory analytical procedure), after which the lignin-derived pyrolysates and TGA profiles were compared. Qualitative analysis of the distribution of pyrolysates provided predictive information about the structure and composition of the lignin in each sample. Results suggest that the lignin extract pyrolysates contained a different distribution of linkages and monomers in comparison to the non-extracted biomass, suggesting that lignin processing can influence bio-oil composition. Moreover, we identify the types of products obtainable by pyrolysis of these feedstocks and their lignin extracts. Heteronuclear single quantum coherence nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (HSQC NMR) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were also used to elucidate the structures of the extracted lignin samples.

Natural food colorants with functional properties are of increasing interest. Prior papers indicate the chemical suitability of sorghum leaf 3-deoxyanthocyanidins as natural food colorants. Via mutagenesis-assisted breeding, a sorghum variety that greatly overaccumulates 3-deoxyanthocyanidins of leaf tissue, named REDforGREEN (RG), has been isolated and characterized. Interestingly, RG not only caused increased 3-deoxyanthocyanidins but also caused increased tannins, chlorogenic acid, and total phenolics in the leaf tissue. Chemical composition of pigments was established through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) that identified luteolinidin (LUT) and apigeninidin (APG) as the main 3-deoxyanthocianidin species. Specifically, 3-deoxyanthocianidin levels were 1768 μ gg �1 LUT and 421 μ gg �1 APG in RG leaves compared with trace amounts in wild type, representing 1000-fold greater levels in the mutant leaves. Thus, RG represents a useful sorghum mutagenesis In Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (sorghum), the most common anthocyanidin types are the 3-deoxyanthocyanidins, primarily luteolinidin (LUT) and apigeninidin (AP), and their glycosylated derivatives, 7 known as 3-deoxyanthocyanins. The 3-deoxyanthocyanins are rare in nature and are of increased interest as natural food colorants due to their better stability to food-processing conditions than the more common anthocya- nins found in most food plants. 7,8 Despite their potential as natural food ingredients, commercially viable sources of the 3- deoxyanthocyanins have not been identified. High concen- trations of the 3-deoxyanthocyanins are reported in black sorghum bran; 9 however, the bran tissue is a limited component of the total plant biomass. In addition, the 3- deoxyanthocyanin pigments are relatively difficult to extract from bran tissue due to their strong association with cell wall material. Recent findings demonstrate that the more abundant plant tissues, leaves and sheaths, of sorghum may be more

Herein we report the fast pyrolysis of dried, ground Scenedesmus sp. at two different reactor scales. Pyrolysis was performed at 480 °C and 1 bar in both an isothermal spouted bed reactor and a dynamic pyrolysis-GC/MS unit, each with 2 s vapor residence times. Bio-oil products were characterized on the basis of GC-MS, simulated distillation GC, elemental analysis, calorific content and total acid number. The ratio of crude oil: char obtained from the spouted bed reactor was 3.76 by weight, the average calorific content of the oil being 18.4 MJ/kg. The average total acid number (68 mg KOH/g) was lower than typical bio-oil produced via wood pyrolysis. Simulated distillation results indicated that a significant proportion of the oil corresponded to the boiling range typical for heavy gas oil (343 °C–524 °C). Elemental analysis showed the oil contained an average of 27.6 wt.% oxygen and 8.6 wt.% nitrogen, the relatively high nitrogen content being a consequence of the high protein content of the algae. According to GC-MS data, the oil consisted of various hydrocarbons as well as oxygenated and nitrogenous species, including indoles, fatty acids and amides. Pyrolysis-GC-MS was also performed on Scenedesmus sp. in order to provide insights into the nature of the primary pyrolysis products.

Herein we report the fast pyrolysis of the lignin monomers sinapyl and coniferyl alcohol, as well as mixtures of the two, at 650 °C using pyrolysis–GC/MS. The total ion chromatogram area % of certain marker pyrolysates for each alcohol were summed and used to calculate sinapyl:guaiacyl (S:G) ratios in the mixtures; these ratios were then plotted against the actual molar S:G ratios of the starting material. 13 coniferyl alcohol marker pyrolysates and 9 sinapyl alcohol marker pyrolysates provided acceptable linear correlation, whereas several other marker groups chosen did not correlate to the actual S:G ratio in the starting material. Results indicated that the demethoxylation of sinapyl alcohol and/or its pyrolysates occurs during pyrolysis at 650 °C; however, the amount of demethoxylated products generated is statistically insignificant. Having obtained the pyrolysis profile of the various S:G mixtures, marker pyrolysates for the calculation of the S:G ratio in lignin can be carefully selected according to unique samples. These marker groups can then be calibrated against known S:G ratios to provide analysis of the actual S:G ratio of lignin in biomass. For example, pyrolysates chosen from the pyrolysis of peach pit lignin were calibrated in order to determine the S:G ratio in peach pit lignin. The resulting S:G ratio was similar to that obtained from capillary electrophoresis of the products from KMnO 4 oxidation of the peach pit lignin.

The deoxygenation of triolein and soybean oil under nitrogen atmosphere was investigated over Ni-Al, Ni-Mg-Al and Mg-Al layered double hydroxides, as well as 20 wt.% Ni/Al 2 O 3 . Deoxygenation was found to proceed via removal of the carboxyl group in the fatty acid structure as CO 2 and CO, while additional cracking of the fatty acid chains resulted in the formation of mainly liquid (C5–C17) hydrocarbons. In comparison with triolein, the greater unsaturation of soybean oil resulted in increased cracking, leading to the formation of lighter hydrocarbons and higher amounts of coke deposits. According to 13 C NMR measurements, one of the pathways for hydrocarbon formation involves a β-hydrogen elimination in the triglyceride to produce a fatty acid, the decarboxylation of which yields a linear hydrocarbon. The formation of coke was consistently observed in these reactions and was found to limit catalyst activity.

Terpenoids, naturally occurring compounds derived from isoprene units present in pine oleoresin, are a valuable source of chemicals used in solvents, fragrances, flavors, and have shown potential use as a biofuel. This paper describes a method to extract and analyze the terpenoids present in loblolly pine saplings and pine lighter wood. Various extraction solvents were tested over different times and temperatures. Samples were analyzed by pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry before and after extractions to monitor the extraction efficiency. The pyrolysis studies indicated that the optimal extraction method used a 1:1 hexane/acetone solvent system at 22°C for 1 h. Extracts from the hexane/acetone experiments were analyzed using a low thermal mass modular accelerated column heater for fast-GC/FID analysis. The most abundant terpenoids from the pine samples were quantified, using standard curves, and included the monoterpenes, α- and β-pinene, camphene, and δ-carene. Sesquiterpenes analyzed included caryophyllene, humulene, and α-bisabolene. Diterpenoid resin acids were quantified in derivatized extractions, including pimaric, isopimaric, levopimaric, palustric, dehydroabietic, abietic, and neoabietic acids.

Background Lignin is a highly abundant biopolymer synthesized by plants as a complex component of plant secondary cell walls. Efforts to utilize lignin-based bioproducts are needed. Results Herein we identify and characterize the composition and pyrolytic deconstruction characteristics of high-lignin feedstocks. Feedstocks displaying the highest levels of lignin were identified as drupe endocarp biomass arising as agricultural waste from horticultural crops. By performing pyrolysis coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, we characterized lignin-derived deconstruction products from endocarp biomass and compared these with switchgrass. By comparing individual pyrolytic products, we document higher amounts of acetic acid, 1-hydroxy-2-propanone, acetone and furfural in switchgrass compared to endocarp tissue, which is consistent with high holocellulose relative to lignin. By contrast, greater yields of lignin-based pyrolytic products such as phenol, 2-methoxyphenol, 2-methylphenol, 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol and 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol arising from drupe endocarp tissue are documented. Conclusions Differences in product yield, thermal decomposition rates and molecular species distribution among the feedstocks illustrate the potential of high-lignin endocarp feedstocks to generate valuable chemicals by thermochemical deconstruction.

Background Improving saccharification efficiency in bioenergy crop species remains an important challenge. Here, we report the characterization of a Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) mutant, named REDforGREEN (RG), as a bioenergy feedstock. Results It was found that RG displayed increased accumulation of lignin in leaves and depletion in the stems, antithetic to the trend observed in wild type. Consistent with these measurements, the RG leaf tissue displayed reduced saccharification efficiency whereas the stem saccharification efficiency increased relative to wild type. Reduced lignin was linked to improved saccharification in RG stems, but a chemical shift to greater S:G ratios in RG stem lignin was also observed. Similarities in cellulose content and structure by XRD-analysis support the correlation between increased saccharification properties and reduced lignin instead of changes in the cellulose composition and/or structure. Conclusion Antithetic lignin accumulation was observed in the RG mutant leaf-and stem-tissue, which resulted in greater saccharification efficiency in the RG stem and differential thermochemical product yield in high lignin leaves. Thus, the red leaf coloration of the RG mutant represents a potential marker for improved conversion of stem cellulose to fermentable sugars in the C4 grass Sorghum.