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Listeria monocytogenes is an important pathogen, often associated with fish, that can adapt and survive in products and food processing plants, where it can persist for many years. It is a species characterized by diverse genotypic and phenotypic characteristics. Therefore, in this study, a total of 17 L. monocytogenes strains from fish and fish-processing environments in Poland were characterized for their relatedness, virulence profiles, and resistance genes. The Core Genome Multilocus Sequence Typing (cgMLST) analysis revealed that the most frequent serogroups were IIa and IIb; sequence types (ST) were ST6 and ST121; and clonal complexes (CC) were CC6 and CC121. Core genome multilocus sequence typing (cgMLST) analysis was applied to compare the present isolates with the publicly available genomes of L. monocytogenes strains recovered in Europe from humans with listeriosis. Despite differential genotypic subtypes, most strains had similar antimicrobial resistance profiles; however, some of genes were located on mobile genetic elements that could be transferred to commensal or pathogenic bacteria. The results of this study showed that molecular clones of tested strains were characteristic for L. monocytogenes isolated from similar sources. Nevertheless, it is worth emphasizing that they could present a major public health risk due to their close relation with strains isolated from human listeriosis.

This paper provides a snapshot on the pathogenic traits within CoNS isolated from ready-to-eat (RTE) food. Eighty-five strains were subjected to biofilm and slime production, as well as biofilm-associated genes (icaA, icaD, icaB, icaC, eno, bap, bhp, aap, fbe, embP and atlE), the insertion sequence elements IS256 and IS257 and hemolytic genes. The results showed that the most prevalent determinants responsible for the primary adherence were eno (57.6%) and aap (56.5%) genes. The icaADBC operon was detected in 45.9% of the tested strains and was correlated to slime production. Moreover, most strains carrying the icaADBC operon simultaneously carried the IS257 insertion sequence element. Among the genes encoding for surface proteins involved in the adhesion to abiotic surfaces process, atlE was the most commonly (31.8%) followed by bap (4.7%) and bhp (1.2%). The MSCRAMMs, including fbe and embp were detected in the 11.8% and 28.2% of strains, respectively. A high occurrence of genes involved in the hemolytic toxin production were detected, such as hla_yiD (50.6%), hlb (48.2%), hld (41.2%) and hla_haem (34.1%). The results of the present study revealed an unexpected occurrence of the genes involved in biofilm production and the high hemolytic activity among the CoNS strains, isolated from RTE food, highlighting that this group seems to be acquiring pathogenic traits similar to those of S. aureus, suggesting the need to be included in the routine microbiological analyses of food.

The aim of this study was phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antibiotic-resistant food-borne Enterobacterales. The largest number of isolates was identified as Enterobacter cloacae (42.4%...

This study analyzed the effect of high-pressure processing on the changes in resistance phenotype and expression of antibiotic resistance genes among strains from commercial starter cultures. After exposure to high pressure the expression of genes encoding resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6')Ie-aph(2″)Ia and aph(3')-IIIa) decreased and the expression of genes encoding resistance to tetracyclines (tetM and tetW), ampicillin (blaZ) and chloramphenicol (cat) increased. Expression changes differed depending on the pressure variant chosen. The results obtained in the gene expression analysis correlated with the results of the phenotype patterns. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is one of the first studies focused on changes in antibiotic resistance associated with a stress response among strains from commercial starter cultures. The results suggest that the food preservation techniques might affect the phenotype of antibiotic resistance among microorganisms that ultimately survive the process. This points to the need to verify strains used in the food industry for their antibiotic resistance as well as preservation parameters to prevent the further increase in antibiotic resistance in food borne strains.

This study analyzed the effect of food-related stresses on the expression of antibiotic resistance of starter and protective strains and resistance gene transfer frequency. After exposure to high-pressure processing, acidic and osmotic stress, the expression of genes encoding resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6')Ie-aph(2″)Ia and aph(3')-IIIa) and/or tetracyclines (tetM) increased. After cold stress, a decrease in the expression level of all tested genes was observed. The results obtained in the gene expression analysis correlated with the results of the phenotype patterns. After acidic and osmotic stresses, a significant increase in the frequency of each gene transfer was observed. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study focused on changes in antibiotic resistance associated with a stress response among starter and protective strains. The results suggest that the physicochemical factors prevailing during food production and storage may affect the phenotype of antibiotic resistance and the level of expression of antibiotic resistance genes among microorganisms. As a result, they can contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance. This points to the need to verify strains used in the food industry for their antibiotic resistance to prevent them from becoming a reservoir for antibiotic resistance genes.

Enterococci are important opportunistic pathogens with the capacity to acquire and spread antibiotic resistance. At present, linezolid-resistant enterococci (LRE) pose a great challenge. Linezolid is considered as a last resort antibiotic in the treatment of enterococcal infections, so it is important to monitor the occurrence of LRE in various environments. The aim of this study was to define the genetic mechanisms of linezolid resistance in enterococci (

Cheeses produced from unpasteurized milk by traditional production methods may contain many groups of microorganisms, including Staphylococcus aureus. The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of S. aureus in the artisanal cheese production chain from unpasteurized milk. We investigated the prevalence of S. aureus strains isolated from various stages of artisanal cheese of unpasteurized milk production from farms in the northeastern and southern parts of Poland and characterized them. Characterization included antimicrobial susceptibility by microbroth dilution and biofilm formation by in vitro assay. Among all strains, the presence of enterotoxigenic genes and genes involved with biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance were screened by PCR-based methods. A total of 180 samples were examined. A high percentage of strains were resistant to penicillin (54/58.1%) and tobramycin (32/34.4%). Some tested isolates also showed resistance to the macrolide class of antibiotics: azithromycin, clarithromycin, and erythromycin at 17/18.3%, 15/16.1%, and 21/22.6%, respectively. Among tested isolates, we also found phenotypic resistance to oxacillin (9/9.7%) and cefoxitin (12/12.9%). The blaZ gene encoding penicillin resistance was the most common gene encoding antibiotic resistance among the tested strains. All isolates showing phenotypic resistance to cefoxitin possessed the mecA gene. The study also evaluated the prevalence of biofilm-associated genes, with eno the most frequently associated gene. Eighty-nine out of 93 S. aureus isolates (95.7%) possessed at least one enterotoxin-encoding gene. The results of this study showed that production of raw milk cheeses may be a source of antibiotic resistance and virulent S. aureus. Our results suggest that artisanal cheese producers should better control production hygiene.

In Poland artisanal cheese production is an important local economic activity. Artisanal cheese is usually produced using raw cow's milk, animal rennet and salt, without the addition of starter cultures. Coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS) are often present in artisanal cheeses. Pathogenic potential of some CoNS species, especially S. epidermidis, suggests that they could correspond to emerging pathogens. The identified risk factors correspond to virulence, antibiotic resistance and biofilm formation. Therefore, we aimed to characterize S. epidermidis isolated along the artisanal raw milk production chain. Seventy artisanal cheeses samples from unpasteurized cow milk purchased in Podlasie and Warmia and Mazury region in Poland, were included in this study. A total of 26 S. epidermidis isolates were obtained. Most of them were antimicrobial resistant, such as to penicillin (84,6%), clindamycin (46,2%), tetracycline (42,3%), erythromycin (42,3%) and cefoxitin (26,9%). Only one isolate was susceptible to all antibiotics used in the study. All methicillin resistant S. epidermidis strains (26,9%) harbored mecA gene. Isolates, phenotypic resistant to tetracycline, harbored at least one tetracycline resistance determinant on which tet(M) was most frequent. Moreover, all tetracycline resistant strains harbored Tn916-Tn1545-like integrase family gene. In the erythromycin resistant isolates, the macrolide resistance genes ermC, ermB or msrA/B were present. Seven strains demonstrated a strong ability to form biofilm and moderate and weak biofilm was demonstrated by 4 strains, whereas 11 of S. epidermidis isolates were found to be unable to form a biofilm. All strains producing strong biofilm harbored the icaD gene which occurred independently or in combination with the icaA. Insertion element IS256, was identified in 15,4% of S. epidermidis strains, all of which were multidrug resistant. Arginine Catabolic Mobile Element (ACME) was identified in 13 of the 26 examined strains (50%). Most common was ACME type I (26,9%), followed by type III (15,4%) and type II (7,7%). Our data indicate that S. epidermidis are widely present in artisanal cheeses from raw whole cow milk in Poland. Many isolated strains containing more virulence factors and antibiotic resistant and carry mobile genetic elements which represent a potential source of resistance transmission to bacteria in humans.

Antybiotykooporność stała się jednym z głównych problemów dotyczących bezpieczeństwa zdrowia publicznego. Przez długi czas zjawisko oporności bakterii na antybiotyki wiązano jedynie z presją selekcyjną w środowisku szpitalnym. Dopiero wzrastająca wiedza na temat genetycznych podstaw oporności oraz mechanizmów, jakie towarzyszą jej przekazywaniu, ukierunkowała badaczy na kompleksowe spojrzenie w jej epidemiologię. Bakterie fermentacji mlekowej (LAB) zostały uznane za bezpieczne ze statusem GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) i QPS (Qualified Presumption of Safety), nadanym przez władze FDA i EFSA. Jednakże badania ostatnich lat wskazują, że zarówno wśród szczepów wchodzących w skład kultur starterowych, jak i probiotycznych, występują także oporne na antybiotyki, które mogą przekazać tę oporność innym drobnoustrojom. Jeśli oporność ta jest cechą wrodzoną, związaną z informacją zakodowaną w chromosomie, nie ma powodu do niepokoju. Niestety coraz częściej obserwowane są szczepy z opornością tzw. nabytą na skutek mutacji punktowych lub transferu genów. Oba te zjawiska prowadzą w konsekwencji do trwałego dziedziczenia oporności, a także do jej rozprzestrzeniania drogą transferu horyzontalnego (HGT). Wskutek transferu w komórkach pojawiają się nowe geny oporności, przenoszone na ruchomych elementach genetycznych, takich jak plazmidy, transpozony, sekwencje insercyjne. Coraz częściej pojawiają się niepokojące doniesienia wskazujące, że LAB, w tym szczepy probiotyczne, wykazują oporność nabytą na coraz więcej grup antybiotyków, zwłaszcza na tetracykliny, makrolidy, glikopeptydy czy amfenikole. U wielu z tych szczepów stwierdza się obecność determinant oporności na ruchomych elementach genetycznych, a także potwierdza się ich zdolność do przekazywania genów na drodze HGT do innych bakterii, w tym patogennych.

Hafnia sp. and Serratia sp. belong to the Tribe Klebsielleae; although they are not considered pathogenic bacteria, there are many documented cases of diseases caused by these microorganisms. The aim of this study was to determine the antibiotic resistance profiles of strains belonging to the genus Hafnia and Serratia isolated from fish and shrimps. Phenotypic antibiotic resistance was determined using the semi-automatic Vitek 2 system (bioMérieux, Marcy-l’Étoile, France), while the presence of the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase, AmpC beta-lactamases, Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemases and Metallo-β-Lactamase producing strains were determined using the MIC Test Strip (Liofilchem, Roseto degli Abbruzzi, Italy). As a result of the conducted research, it was observed that a vast number of Hafnia sp. strains were resistant to cefalexin (84.61%), while Serratia sp. Strains to cefuroxime (79.41%) and nitrofurantoin (85.29%). In addition, it was observed that of all strains, only one had an ability to produce enzymes typical for β-lactamase-producing Enterobacterales. Although the strains of Hafnia sp. and Serratia sp. isolated from fish and shrimp are not characterized by frequent resistance to antibiotics, taking into account the constantly growing number of antibiotic-resistant strains, this may be a problem in the future, mainly due to gene transfer through mobile genetic elements and the acquisition of resistance expressed phenotypically through contact with stress factors. Therefore, studies monitoring the antibiotic resistance profile of these species should be carried out on a regular basis.

The aim of study was to determine the occurrence of virulence factors and virulence-related genes among enterococci isolated from food of animal origin and effects of osmotic and high pressure stress on expression of virulence-related genes. The number of 78 isolates were analyzed. None of them showed a strong ability to form biofilm, 38.5% (n = 30) had the slime production ability, 41% (n = 32) had gelatinase activity, γ -type hemolysis was observed in 55% of isolates, and α-type hemolysis in 45%. All of the isolates carried 1–13 virulence-related genes. The most common genes were gelE (85.9%), sprE (78.2%) and asa1 (75.6%). There were also observed changes in the expression of the gelE, esp, asa1 and cylL genes in response to various NaCl concentration and high pressure processing. Results obtained in this study indicate that enterococci isolated from food may act as reservoirs of virulence genes. The presence of virulence factors among enterococci, especially the ability to biofilm formation is important for food safety and the protection of public health. The results presented in our work demonstrate that stress that can occur during food preservation and food processing can induce the changes in the virulence-related genes expression.

The aim of this study was phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antibiotic-resistant food-borne

Although coagulase-positive staphylococci are considered to be the main factor responsible for food poisoning, an increasing role for the coagulase-negative staphylococci in the production of enterotoxins has been observed in recent years. This study was conducted to assess the occurrence of genes responsible for the production of staphylococcal enterotoxins (SE), enterotoxin-like toxins (SEI) and toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) in coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) isolated from ready-to-eat food from bars and restaurants. One hundred and eighteen CoNS strains were tested using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to five superantigenic toxin genes, including five different types of classical enterotoxins (sea, seb, sec, sed and see) and the toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (tsst-1) as well as to supertoxin-like genes. PCR-positive isolates were then tested using immunoenzymatic methods (SET-RPLA, Vidas SET 2) for toxin expression. Out of 118 CoNS strains, the presence of staphylococcal enterotoxins was confirmed in 72% of them. The most frequently found enterotoxin-like genotype was ser, selu. Two of the tested strains had up to ten different enterotoxin genes in the genome at the same time. Although no production of enterotoxins was detected in the CoNS, which means that their possible role in the epidemiology of food-borne diseases is minimal, the data demonstrated that the toxigenic capacity of the CoNS should not be ignored, and that this group of microorganisms should be continuously monitored in food.

This study analyzed antibiotic resistance and the occurrence of resistance genes in strains from starter and protective cultures. The largest number of obtained strains belonged to the genus Lactobacillus (n = 26; 44.9%), followed by Lactococcus (n = 17; 29.3%), Pediococcus (n = 8; 13.8%), Streptococcus (n = 4; 6.9%), Staphylococcus (n = 2; 3.4%) and Leuconostoc (n = 1; 1.7%). Among all strains, the highest Minimum Inhibitory Concentrations (MICs) were noted for tetracycline (max. >256 μg/ml), kanamycin (max. 48 μg/ml) and chloramphenicol (max. 32 μg/ml). The most common resistance genes were aph(3’)-IIIa (n = 35; 60.3%) and cat (n = 32; 55.2%). Strains derived from starter and protective cultures have the ability to horizontally transfer resistance genes in vitro and in situ. It should be noted that antibiotic resistance of bacteria from starter and protective cultures does not present an immediate risk to consumers. However, these microorganisms could become an environmental reservoir of antibiotic resistance. The obtained results indicate that antibiotic resistance in starter and protective cultures is not a critical issue, however it creates a concern that cannot be ignored.

Background: The aim of this study was to evaluate the possibility of the horizontal transfer of genes encoding resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6')-Ie-aph(2″)-Ia, aph(2″)-Ib, aph(2″)-Ic, aph(2″)-Id, ant(4')-Ia and ant(6')-Ia), tetracyclines (tetM, tetL, tetK, tetO and tetW), and macrolides (ermA, ermB, ermC, msrC, mefAB) in Enterococcus strains isolated from ready-to-eat dishes purchased in bars and restaurants in Olsztyn, Poland.; Results: It was found that 74% of tested strains were able to conjugal transfer at least one of the antibiotic resistance genes. Transfer of resistance to tetracyclines in strains was observed with a frequency ranging from 1.3 × 10-6 to 8.7 × 10-7 transconjugants/donor. The int gene and the tetM gene were transferred simultaneously, which indicated that a transposon of the Tn916/Tn1545 also participated in the conjugation process. The frequency of transferring genes of resistance to macrolides ranged from 3.2 × 10-6 to 2.4 × 10-8 transconjugants/donor. The ermB gene was transferred the most frequently. The frequency of acquisition of genes encoding aminoglycosides in strains isolated from food ranged from 1.7 × 10-6 to 3,2 × 10-8 transconjugants/donor. Transfer of the aac(6')-Ie-aph(2″) gene was the most frequent. In all reactions, the clonal character of transconjugants and recipients was confirmed by the polymerase chain reaction melting profile (PCR MP) method, which is an alternative to the pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) method.; Conclusion: The findings of this study indicate that Enterococcus isolated from ready-to-eat food is able to horizontally transfer genes encoding various antibiotic resistance mechanisms. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.; © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive intracellular bacterium, which causes foodborne listeriosis. This organism can be introduced through many routes to food-processing environments and may become established on food-processing equipment. Examination of 130 meat samples was conducted and the Listeria monocytogenes prevalence was determined by using an ISO culture method and PCR method. The isolated strains’ ability to form a biofilm was determined with the microplate (MP) method. Out of 130 meat samples examined, 22 (17%) contained L. monocytogenes. The majority (n=13; 59%) of the strains were characterized by a no biofilm producer. Four of the of Listeria monocytogenes strains (18,2%) showed strong and five of them (22,7%) moderate ability to form biofilm

Enterococci have emerged as important nosocomial pathogens and have been found to possess many virulence factors, some of which are considered very important in the pathogenesis of diseases caused by them. While clinical Enterococcus strains have been extensively described in the literature, the knowledge of the virulence factors and the genetic structure of enterococci found in food is limited. In addition, enterococci are intrinsically resistant to several antimicrobial agents and they can easily acquire resistance to antimicrobials. High-level resistance to a wide range of antibiotics together with the presence of virulence factors reinforces the potential role of enterococci as effective opportunists in nosocomial infections. Although foodborne enterococcal infections have never been reported, the consumption of food carrying virulence enterococci is a possible route of transfer. This review was carried out to characterise of some virulence factors which most often occur in Enterococcus strains isolated from food including ready-to-eat food.

Examination of 330 food samples (meat, white raw sausage, smoked meat and cheeses) was conducted and the Salmonella spp. and Y. enterocolitica prevalence were determined. For isolated strains of Salmonella spp., it was determined whether they were of S. Typhi, S. Typhimurium or S. Enteritidis serotypes. Isolated Y. enterocolitica strains were biotyped. Moreover, the strains' ability to form a biofilm and presence of virulence factors was determined. Salmonella spp. were found in 16 (5.5%) samples, whereas Yersinia enterocolitica in 7 (2.1%) samples. Serotyping resulted in classifying 4 strains as S. Typhimurium, 2 as S. Enteritidis and none as S. Typhi. Ten strains were not classified as any of the determined serotypes. The gene invA was found in all Salmonella strains and spvC was found in 3 (18.7%) strains. All of the Y. enterocolitica were classified as biotype 1A, none of the strains had the genes ail or ystA, and the ystB gene was found in five strains. None of the 16 strains of Salmonella spp. and the 7 strains of Y. enterocolitica showed any strong ability to form a biofilm, while 7 strains of Salmonella spp. and 3 strains of Y. enterocolitica showed a moderate ability to form a biofilm.

The enterococci are ubiquitous bacteria able to colonize the human and animal gastrointestinal tracts and fresh and fermented food products. Their highly plastic genome allows Enterococcus spp. to gain resistance to multiple antibiotics, making infections with these organisms difficult to treat. Food-borne enterococci could be carriers of antibiotic resistance determinants. The goal of this work was to study the characteristics of Enterococcus spp. in fermented milk products from Poland and their antibiotic resistance gene profiles. A total of 189 strains were isolated from 182 dairy products out of 320 samples tested. The predominant species were Enterococcus faecium (53.4%) and Enterococcus faecalis (34.4%). Isolates were resistant to streptomycin (29.1%), erythromycin (14.3%), tetracycline (11.6%), rifampicin (8.7%), and tigecycline (8.1%). We also detected 2 vancomycin-resistant and 3 linezolid-resistant strains; however, no vanA or vanB genes were identified. A total of 57 high-level aminoglycoside resistance strains (30.2%) were identified, most of which have the ant(6')-Ia gene, followed by the aac(6')-Ie-aph(2″)-Ia and aph(3″)-IIIa genes. Resistance to tetracycline was most often conferred by tetM and tetL genes. Macrolide resistance was most frequently encoded by ermB and ermA genes. Conjugative mobile genetic element (transposon Tn916-Tn1545) was identified in 15.3% of the strains, including 96.3% of strains harboring the tetM gene. This study found that enterococci are widely present in retail ready-to-eat dairy products in Poland. Many isolated strains are antibiotic resistant and carry transferable resistance genes, which represent a potential source of transmission of multidrug-resistant bacteria to humans.

This study analyzed phenotypic and molecular resistance to tetracyclines, macrolides, glycopeptides, aminoglycosides in Enterococcus strains isolated from plant-derived food. The study involved examining 270 food samples and 72 obtained Enterococcus sp. strains were isolated and identified as E. faecium, E. faecalis and E. casseliflavus. Most of them (55.6%) were resistant to streptomycin, followed by those resistant to rifampicin (51.4%), tigecycline (37.5%), erythromycin (36.1%) and fosfomycin (27.8%). More than half of the strains under analysis showed the high-level aminoglycoside resistance (HLAR) phenotype (55.6%). Resistance to aminoglycosides was associated mainly with the presence of the ant(6′)-Ia gene (54.2%), followed by the aph(3′)-IIIa gene (30.5%), and – to a small extent – with the presence of the aac(6′)-Ie-aph(2″)-la gene (8.3%). Resistance to tetracycline was caused mainly by the tetM (40.3%) and tetL (22.2%) genes and to macrolides - by ermB (33.3%) and ermA (11.1%). A conjugative transposon of the Tn916/Tn1545 family was present in nearly half (45.8%) of the isolates. The findings show that there is a need to monitor plant-derived food for the presence of antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus strains, because it can be a potential reservoir of genes encoding resistance to clinically important antibiotics.

Listeriosis is one of the most notable foodborne diseases and is characterized by high rates of mortality. L. monocytogenes is the main cause of human listeriosis outbreaks, however, there are isolated cases of disease caused by other species of the genus Listeria. The aim of this study was to evaluate strains of L. monocytogenes (n = 7), L. innocua (n = 6), and L. welshimeri (n = 2) isolated from fish and shrimps for their virulence based on the presence of virulence genes and the in vivo Danio rerio (zebrafish) larvae models. A total of 15 strains were analyzed. The zebrafish larvae model showed that the larvae injected with L. monocytogenes strains were characterized by the lowest survival rate (46.5%), followed by L. innocua strains (64.2%) and L. welshimeri (83.0%) strains. Multiplex PCRs were used for detection of selected virulence genes (luxS, actA2, prfA, inlB, rrn, iap, sigB, plcB, actA, hlyA), the majority of which were present in L. monocytogenes. Only a few virulence-related genes were found in L. welshimeri, however, no correlation between the occurrence of these genes and larval survival was confirmed. This research highlights the importance of the potential impact that Listeria spp. strains isolated from fish and shrimps may have on consumers.

The objective of the study was to answer the question of whether the ready-to-eat meat products can pose indirect hazard for consumer health serving as reservoir of Enterococcus strains harboring tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, and macrolides resistance genes. A total of 390 samples of ready-to-eat meat products were investigated. Enterococcus strains were found in 74.1% of the samples. A total of 302 strains were classified as: Enterococcus faecalis (48.7%), Enterococcus faecium (39.7%), Enterococcus casseliflavus (4.3%), Enterococcus durans (3.0%), Enterococcus hirae (2.6%), and other Enterococcus spp. (1.7%). A high percentage of isolates were resistant to streptomycin high level (45%) followed by erythromycin (42.7%), fosfomycin (27.2%), rifampicin (19.2%), tetracycline (36.4%), tigecycline (19.9%). The ant(6')-Ia gene was the most frequently found gene (79.6%). Among the other genes that encode aminoglycosides-modifying enzymes, the highest portion of the strains had the aac(6')-Ie-aph(2'')-Ia (18.5%) and aph(3'')-IIIa (16.6%), but resistance of isolates from food is also an effect of the presence of aph(2'')-Ib, aph(2'')-Ic, aph(2'')-Id genes. Resistance to tetracyclines was associated with the presence of tetM (43.7%), tetL (32.1%), tetK (14.6%), tetW (0.7%), and tetO (0.3%) genes. The ermB and ermA genes were found in 33.8% and 18.9% of isolates, respectively. Nearly half of the isolates contained a conjugative transposon of the Tn916/Tn1545 family. Enterococci are widely present in retail ready-to-eat meat products. Many isolated strains (including such species as E. casseliflavus, E. durans, E. hirae, and Enterococcus gallinarum) are antibiotic resistant and carry transferable resistance genes.

A total of 60 samples from retail raw, cooked and ready-to-eat shrimps were collected and the prevalence of Enterococcus spp, their virulence factors, antibiotic resistance and biofilm-forming ability was determined. Most of the strains were isolated from ready-to-eat shrimps (16/20; 80%) followed by raw shrimps (11/20; 55%) and cooked shrimps (8/20; 40%). Among the 35 isolates, Enterococcus faecalis (62.9%) and Enterococcus faecium (28.6%) were the dominant species. More than half of all investigated isolates (65.7%) were resistant to at least one class of antibiotic, and 16 (45.7%) of the strains were classified as multidrug resistant. A high percentage of isolates were resistant to tetracycline (48.6%), followed by tigecycline and fosfomycin (45.7%). All of the enterococci isolates, carried between 5 and 9 tested virulence genes. The presence of esp (100%), gelE (88.6%), efaA (77.1%) genes and sex pheromones cpd (100%) cob (94.3%), ccf (94.3%) were found most frequently in all of the tested enterococci species. Shrimp strains showed a moderate or weak ability to produce biofilm. Our data indicate that shrimps can be considered a reservoir of antibiotic resistant, virulence strains from the genus Enterococcus.

Starter cultures are selected microbial strains intentionally added to food to obtain a product with desired organoleptic characteristics. The most important group of microorganisms used in starter cultures are bacteria, mostly lactic acid bacteria (LAB). For many years the safety criteria for the use of starter cultures in food production were based mainly on their long history of safe use. However, recent research indicates that starter culture microorganisms are able to acquire antibiotic resistance genes. Starter culture microorganisms can carry variously sized plasmids with resistance determinants. These strains have a high potential for transmitting resistance genes, which raises concerns regarding the antibiotic resistance of food-related bacteria. It should be noted that the antibiotic resistance of starter culture bacteria does not pose a direct risk to consumers because they are not pathogenic. However, they can act as environmental reservoirs of antibiotic resistance determinants. Therefore, bacteria that harbor antibiotic resistance genes on mobile genetic elements should not be used in food production. In addition, it is reported that stress factors associated with the production and storage of food may affect the changes in the antibiotic resistance profile of these microorganisms. Research indicates that the acquisition of antibiotic resistance in starter cultures is not a critical problem, but it poses a concern that cannot be disregarded.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the possibility of the horizontal transfer of genes encoding resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6')-Ie-aph(2″)-Ia, aph(2″)-Ib, aph(2″)-Ic, aph(2″)-Id, ant(4')-Ia and ant(6')-Ia), tetracyclines (tetM, tetL, tetK, tetO and tetW), and macrolides (ermA, ermB, ermC, msrC, mefAB) in Enterococcus strains isolated from ready-to-eat dishes purchased in bars and restaurants in Olsztyn, Poland.It was found that 74% of tested strains were able to conjugal transfer at least one of the antibiotic resistance genes. Transfer of resistance to tetracyclines in strains was observed with a frequency ranging from 1.3 × 10The findings of this study indicate that Enterococcus isolated from ready-to-eat food is able to horizontally transfer genes encoding various antibiotic resistance mechanisms. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

In the annual reports of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), Yersinia enterocolitica (YE) is enumerated as the third most common enteric pathogen responsible for food poisonings. The objective of the paper was to determine the potential for Yersinia enterocolitica growth in blue cheese and in blue cheese with a probiotic (Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5®). The experiment was carried out with five different cheese batches. The potential of YE growth was determined at 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 °C in ten time intervals up to 480 h of storage. The initial contamination level was set at ~103 cfu/g YE. The studies demonstrated that at lower temperatures there was a systematic increase in the number of cells throughout the storage period, whereas at higher temperatures stationary and die-off phases were observed. By comparing the increase in the number of YE cells in both cheese varieties, it may be observed that at 6, 9 and 12 °C the number of YE cells was lower in blue cheese with probiotic than in blue cheese at each stage of the experiment although it did not guarantee the microbiological safety of the product.

Yersinia enterocolitica is listed in the annual reports of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as the third-most-common enteropathogen. The highly pathogenic Y. enterocolitica bioserotype 1B/O8 is geographically limited to Northern America, although it has also emerged in Japan and Europe. Furthermore, the number of reports on the pathogenicity of serotype 1A (so far regarded as nonpathogenic) has been increasing. Humans are most often infected by consuming raw or inadequately thermally processed pork or milk as well as vegetable products and ready-to-eat meals. Identification of these bacteria in food presents considerable methodological problems.

The objective of the study was to answer the question of whether the ready-to-eat meat products can pose indirect hazard for consumer health serving as reservoir of Enterococcus strains harboring tetracyclines, aminoglycosides, and macrolides resistance genes. A total of 390 samples of ready-to-eat meat products were investigated. Enterococcus strains were found in 74.1% of the samples. A total of 302 strains were classified as: Enterococcus faecalis (48.7%), Enterococcus faecium (39.7%), Enterococcus casseliflavus (4.3%), Enterococcus durans (3.0%), Enterococcus hirae (2.6%), and other Enterococcus spp. (1.7%). A high percentage of isolates were resistant to streptomycin high level (45%) followed by erythromycin (42.7%), fosfomycin (27.2%), rifampicin (19.2%), tetracycline (36.4%), tigecycline (19.9%). The ant(6')-Ia gene was the most frequently found gene (79.6%). Among the other genes that encode aminoglycosides-modifying enzymes, the highest portion of the strains had the aac(6')-Ie-aph(2'')-Ia (18.5%) and aph(3'')-IIIa (16.6%), but resistance of isolates from food is also an effect of the presence of aph(2'')-Ib, aph(2'')-Ic, aph(2'')-Id genes. Resistance to tetracyclines was associated with the presence of tetM (43.7%), tetL (32.1%), tetK (14.6%), tetW (0.7%), and tetO (0.3%) genes. The ermB and ermA genes were found in 33.8% and 18.9% of isolates, respectively. Nearly half of the isolates contained a conjugative transposon of the Tn916/Tn1545 family. Enterococci are widely present in retail ready-to-eat meat products. Many isolated strains (including such species as E. casseliflavus, E. durans, E. hirae, and Enterococcus gallinarum) are antibiotic resistant and carry transferable resistance genes.