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The article addresses the progressive changes in the climate caused by increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In light of the applicable regulations, Poland should reduce the emissions with significant potential of creating the greenhouse effect. One way to achieve this is to increase the use of renewable energy sources, where biogas energy production is one of the most effective methods. Using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method, the greenhouse gas emissions, expressed as CO2 equivalent generated during the entire logistic process of its production, were calculated.

The aim of the article is to present the idea of energy clusters and legislative changes concerning the creation of energy clusters. An attempt was made to theoretically analyze the concept of energy clusters in light of the amendment to the Act on renewable energy sources (RES). The method of literature review was applied and the most important items concerning the functioning of energy clusters were referred to. Provisions of subsequent RES laws regarding energy clusters were presented, starting from the Act of February 20, 2015, in which the definition of an energy cluster appeared for the first time, and ending with the latest amendment to the Act of February 24, 2022. It was found that the progressing globalization encourages austerity measures, especially in the energy sector, which contributes to the development of the economy. The way to meet the requirements of the European Union regarding increasing the share of renewable energy sources in the energy mix and limiting the consumption of conventional resources may be achived by distributed energy based on the activities of prosumers, which is undoubtedly manifested by energy clusters.

The article aims to identify the changes in the number of employees in European Union (EU) countries in the renewable energy sector in 2018 compared to 2014. EurObserv’ER yearbooks were the source of data on employment and capacity for selected renewable energy sources. The paper uses descriptive and pair-wise comparison methods. The largest decreases in employment were observed among countries that are leaders in the RES market (e.g., Germany, France). On the other hand, the greatest increases in employment were determined by source development opportunities in a given country, e.g., biofuels in Romania, Poland, Hungary, or Lithuania. The conducted pair-wise comparison indicated that the relation between the change in the ranking position and the change in the number of employees was significant for EU countries, whose ranking positions are both in the first (combination AA – I) and the second ten (combination CC – II) in the RES sector. Moreover, the results of the statistical analysis indicated a significant relationship and p-value significance in 11 out of 12 variables adopted for correlation, covering the number of employed and installed capacity in selected RES sectors in 2014 and 2018.

Biomass is a major source of renewable energy in the EU and Poland, stimulating the growth of the wood pellet sector. Wood pellet demand is stimulated by a complex interaction of market forces and policies including EU climate, energy, and environmental regulations, Poland’s program to improve air quality, and subsidies for the replacement of inefficient stoves used by households. This article focuses on the growth of the wood pellet industry, imports and exports in Poland, and wood pellet quality and use by households. The main issues faced by the EU wood pellet sector between 2013 and 2016 are further considered in the context of opinions of Polish wood pellet manufacturers. Industry opinions were collected in response to an open-ended question that probed for the main issues faced by wood pellet producers during the survey implemented by the authors in 2019. Respondents identified difficulties in obtaining raw material for pellet production and poor pellet quality as major problems. Although the majority did not feel concerned about competition from imported wood pellets, a small number of respondents viewed such competition as a problem reflecting the reversal of decreasing imports in 2017. Overall, the domestic wood pellet industry can be expected to grow because of increasing pressure to expand the use of renewable energy and will be driven by the household sector switching to more efficient, wood burning stoves. Additionally, the expanding area of private Polish forests may become a source of much-needed raw material for wood pellet manufacturing.

Poland depends on imports for its transportation fuel supply and EC renewable energy policy encourages rapeseed conversion into biodiesel. This paper discusses changes in winter rapeseed production following changes in sugar policy, decreased dependence on potato use as feed and food, and the EU 2007–2009 support program for production of oil seeds as biofuel feedstock. We examine whether farm cost efficiency scores differ across Poland's 16 regions between those growing rapeseed and all other farms using Farm Accounting Data Network (FADN) data. Farms growing rapeseed are more cost efficient in all regions, and while regions with long experience in growing rapeseed still dominate the production, rapeseed production is expanding into new areas. Subsidies offered under the EU support program likely initiated expansion and the expansion continues after the program expired. Less efficient farms can be encouraged to enter rapeseed production through farm outreach services and competitive prices in relation to other crops since the available land permits further expansion of this biodiesel feedstock production.

The aim of this article is to identify the determinants affecting the growth of renewable energy source utilisation in rural areas in the context of sustainable development. The research covered the economic circumstances and changes in law relating to the RES (renewable energy sources) Act of 2018, which resulted from EU’s energy policy ensuring favourable conditions for RES development and financial support for RE producers. Four sources of renewable energy relevant to rural farm and non-farm households are the focus of this article: wood biomass, biogas, biodiesel and solar energy. The discussion illustrates the role of rural households in the supply and use of RE consistent with the principle of sustainable development, describes rural residents’ favourable attitudes towards financing RE projects from public funds, and the potential for creating local jobs in the RE sector, among others.

The aim of this article was to show the position of Poland in the renewable energy subsectors among the European Union countries. The research covered the areas of biomass, solar heating and heat pumps, showing the degree of their utilization, power required to drive the system and their production in 2016. The provided information was supplemented with a revenues per employee in thousand euros in chosen subsectors of renewable energy sources in the year 2016. The main tool for carrying out the set objective was the use of descriptive and comparative methods. The results of the survey demonstrated Poland’s prominent place in the sector of liquid biofuels (1st place in EU), thanks to the significant supply of raw materials as well as development perspectives in solar energy, which is confirmed by the world's statistics indicating a record number of photovoltaic installations fitted (PV).

Solar energy utilization by rural households in Poland contributes to the EU-mandated increase in renewable energy use, while lowering emission, dependence on fossil fuels, and energy costs, and improving air quality. Using the survey data collected from owners of passive solar panels in rural areas, this study examines the importance of selected reasons in household decision to participate in the EU-funded solar panel subsidy program augmented by contributions from local governments and each household. Associations between nine reasons to invest in a solar panel and characteristics of respondents, their households, and solar panel features were examined using correlation coefficients. An ordered logit technique was also applied and calculations based on estimation results yielded probability changes in the relative importance attached to a selected reason for investing in a panel in response to a change in a respondent, household, or solar panel characteristic. The desire to save on energy used to heat space or water, and lower the energy bill as well as being unemployed or having part-time employment increased the probability of viewing the total cost, installation cost, subsidy, and the energy costs prior to having a solar panel as important. Those viewing the solar energy favorably were, overall, less likely to consider lowering the energy bill prior to putting a solar panel as important, while those perceiving solar panel features as troublesome were also less likely to view the listed reasons as important.

The article is an attempt to estimate the potential of reduction carbon dioxide emissions using microinstallation of renewable energy sources (RES) in single-family housing. Based on the energy demand of the building, statistical data including the average number of single-family buildings built per year and the average area of a single-family building, the forecasted national annual reduction of carbon dioxide emissions resulting from the implementation of microinstallations in single-family buildings was calculated. The research results indicated an annual reduction of carbon dioxide emissions resulting from the use of selected RES microinstallations only in the single-family housing sector at the level of 230,000 t/year.

Thermal solar panel installation has been growing in Poland in response to the EU policies and available subsidies. This paper investigates the attitudes of residents of four counties in Mazowieckie Voividship in Poland about the origin of solar panels. Results show that rural residents did not attach importance to awarding preferences to domestic solar panel producers or to foreign producers in exchange of trade benefits. The recycling of used solar panels concerned a relatively small portion of respondents and seems to justify the passage of regulations obligating the solar panel industry to recycle the used panels.

The paper examines self-reported food waste volume generated by a sample of rural households in Lubelskie Voivodship in Poland accounting for four different categories of food waste. Food waste does occur and some of it is unavoidable leading to the question how to manage it. This study identifies factors responsible for the volume of self-reported food waste by category, but also identifies factors influencing the decision to collect food waste in household for the purpose of local biogas production. Tobit technique is applied to identify factors, demographic and socio-economic characteristics of consumers and their households that influence the percentage of wasted food by type. A separate decision equation identifies supporting or limiting factors influencing the decision to sort food waste for biogas production. Education, gender, age, household size, and employment status have been identified as relevant characteristics determining the volume of wasted food and the decision to support using food waste for biogas generation.

Dokonano rozpoznania przestrzennych rA³A¼nic w poziomie kosztA³w produkcji surowcA³w rolnych wykorzystywanych do wytwarzania bioetanolu i estrA³w metylowych w Polsce. Wyniki badaA„ wskazaA‚y na istotA™ zrA³A¼nicowania poziomu kosztA³w produkcji rzepaku ozimego i kukurydzy na ziarno w ujA™ciu przestrzennym. NajwyA¼szy wskaAonik opA‚acalnoA›ci produkcji rzepaku odnotowano w wojewA³dztwie wielkopolskim (213,2%), a najniA¼szy w wojewA³dztwie A‚A³dzkim (134,5%). Natomiast w przypadku produkcji kukurydzy na ziarno najwyA¼szy wskaAonik opA‚acalnoA›ci (z dopA‚atami) odnotowano w wojewA³dztwie warmiA„sko-mazurskim (171,9%), najniA¼szy zaA› w wojewA³dztwie zachodniopomorskim (109,2%). W przypadku uprawy kukurydzy na ziarno istotnA… rolA™ odegraA‚y uzyskane do produkcji dopA‚aty z UE.

The examination of spatial differences in the number of methyl ester and bioethanol manufacturing installations concludes that Poland’s biocomponent manufacturing is regionally concentrated. A similar conclusion arises from the analysis of rapeseed and corn shares in the total cropland area by voivodship. Furthermore, the current EU biofuel policy positively influences markets associated with the production and processing of rapeseed, but its effect on the corn market is negligible.

The directives obligating the use of renewable energy in transport stimulate the biofuels demand. The aim of the paper was to review the impact of EU directives related to biofuel use on the rural area development in Poland. The research scope covered the rapeseed oil methyl ester production in Poland from 2011 through 2017. The study applies the descriptive comparative methods based on the subject literature as well as data from KOWR, GUS, and PSPO. The findings indicate that the biofuel production not only allows for diversification of energy used in transportation, but also constitutes an important element of the development of rural area. In Poland, the increase in the biofuel demand is conducive to the increase in the agricultural production profitability and reduces disparities in agriculture income. Moreover, it significantly contributes to the increase of feed components supply due to the rape cake production resulting from the oil pressing.

The paper emphasizes the differences in the concentration of investments with the use of photovoltaic panels and solar collectors in voivodships with significant potential for using solar energy. The subject of the paper addresses, among others, the significant changes in renewable energy sources (RES) and EU subsidies that affect the economics of solar micro-installations in Poland. The study applied data from the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, which included completed operations under the rural development program (RDP) for the period 2007-2013. The percentage share of the number of photovoltaic panel installations in Lubelskie and Mazowieckie Voivodships constituted 22% of that type of investments in the country (13% and 9% respectively, with a total capacity of 2,634 kW). However, in the case of the number of solar collector installations, the percentage share in Lubelskie and Mazowieckie Voivodships accounted for 44% of such installations in Poland (29% and 15%, respectively, with a total capacity of 4,239 kW). The results confirm the view that the location is an important determinant of photovoltaic panel and solar collector installations in Poland as shown in the examined voivodships characterized by the favorable solar radiation conditions.

The idea of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) represents the voluntary effort that companies invest in social life. Companies incorporate the concept of CSR strategy in their businesses, knowing its importance to the benefit of the public at large and to sustainable development. Any activity of any major company is exposed to public opinion, which plays a key role in shaping the image of the company. Companies compete to win social trust and acceptance of their activity. The aim of the article was to present the value and significance of CSR activities undertaken by companies, using the example of two businesses, i.e. Polski Koncern Naftowy (PKN) Orlen and Kompania Piwowarska in reference to sustainable development. The article compares the CSR measurement matrix that allows assessing whether a given company is socially responsible, to what extent CSR activities affect the company's stakeholders and to what extent they are consistent with sustainable development (assigning particular CSR development tools by Stakeholders applying the weights from 1 to 3). ISO 26000 standards define the principles of social and environmental responsibility as a guide for organizations and in the analysed companies are a tool that exerts one of the greatest impacts on stakeholders. For both companies, the most important stakeholders are Shareholders and Managers, and they are the ones who, to the largest extent, conduct a socially responsible dialogue for which all CSR development tools are important. Both companies conduct key activities, PKN Orlen used 91% and Kompania Piwowarska 73% of all CSR development tools considered in this study.

The paper's objective is to quantify factors influencing a rural homeowner's decision to invest in exterior insulation to improve energy efficiency, lower heating costs, decrease air pollution, and reduce ash disposal and time spent monitoring coal-burning stoves. The study estimates a probit decision equation using survey data collected from an area lagging in economic development and calculates decision probability change in response to a variety of homeowner characteristics, perceived importance of issues related to energy efficiency, and location. The resulting calculation of probability changes on choosing to invest in external insulation show that respondents with higher education had a 6.4% higher probability of making the decision to invest in insulation, but the probability decreased by 11.2% for every additional person added to the household. Residents with the lowest incomes had a relatively higher probability to insulate a house than those with more income, but being a farmer decreased the probability by 60.7%. Energy-saving attitudes reflected in recent purchase of energy-efficient household appliances had a 41.2% higher probability to choose exterior insulation. Favoring to pay more for locally-generated solar energy increased the probability of investing in exterior insulation by 16.2%, while those who wanted the hot water supply independent from electricity had a 24.2% higher probability. The quantified effects facilitate targeting rural households and increasing their participation in recently introduced programs aimed at energy-efficiency.

Achieving goals of the national reforestation program for 2020 is threatened by its slow implementation despite financial support provided through the EU rural development programs. This study attempts to examine association between the increase in the forest cover and they are of agricultural land in Poland between 2010 and 2015 and the indirect association between the forest cover and regional migration, and residents seeking employment outside agriculture by registering microenterprises focusing only on Podlaskie Voivodship. The description of the observed developments has been supplemented by calculations of the Pearson correlation coefficient between the key indicators considered in this study. The calculated correlations coefficients suggest strong association between the EU funding and the reforested area in three districts surrounding the major cities in the region. Strong correlations were found between regional migration and the entrepreneurial activity reflected in the number of registered micro-enterprises in the case of Białystok and Łomża districts, but somewhat weaker associations in the case of Suwałki district. The transfer of land away from agriculture to reforestation is affected by the local technical infrastructure expansion, e.g., road construction, and influences the obtained correlation coefficients.

SUMMARY Stumpage prices are important to both public and private landowners as they affect the profit received from a timber investment and are an important aspect of the total cost equation for forest products. We performed a review of the major factors affecting stumpage prices mainly using peer-reviewed forestry literature published from 2000 to 2015. We concentrated on journals published in English that were judged the most relevant for publishing research which assessed stumpage price trends and the economics associated with stumpage price levels. Most of the published literature concerned trends observed in North America and Europe, and computational analyses into the factors that helped explain variation in stumpage prices. Variation in stumpage prices arises from national and regional demand and supply factors and market developments, regional and local manufacturing costs, seasonal variation in wood supplies, the occurrence of natural disasters, and various regulatory and organizational policies ...

The IPCC indicates that global mean temperature increases of 2°C or more above preindustrial levels negatively affect such crops as wheat. Canadian climate model projections show warmer temperatures and variable rainfall will likely affect Saskatchewan’s canola and spring wheat production. Drier weather will have the greatest impact. The major climate change challenges will be summer water availability, greater drought frequencies, and crop adaptation. This study investigates the impact of precipitation and temperature changes on canola and spring wheat yield distributions using Environment Canada weather data and Statistics Canada crop yield and planted area for 20 crop districts over the 1987–2010 period. The moment-based methods (full- and partial-moment-based approaches) are employed to characterize and estimate asymmetric relationships between climate variables and the higher-order moments of crop yields. A stochastic production function and the focus on crop yield’s elasticity imply choosing the natural logarithm function as the mean function transformation prior to higher-moment function estimation. Results show that average crop yields are positively associated with the growing season degree-days and pregrowing season precipitation, while they are negatively affected by extremely high temperatures in the growing season. The climate measures have asymmetric effects on the higher moments of crop yield distribution along with stronger effects of changing temperatures than precipitation on yield distribution. Higher temperatures tend to decrease wheat yields, confirming earlier Saskatchewan studies. This study finds pregrowing season precipitation and precipitation in the early plant growth stages particularly relevant in providing opportunities to develop new crop varieties and agronomic practices to mitigate climate changes.

Heavy dependence on fossil fuels among rural households contributes to GHG emissions and air pollution while increasing landfill loads in Poland. This study examines benefits from the renewable energy utilization support program that subsidized household purchase and installation of thermal solar panels. This review of synergy between energy, climate, and air quality policies focuses on solar panel subsidies funded through the European Union and county governments in Mazowieckie Voivodship in Poland. County government offices, using the unpublished list of households receiving subsidies for thermal solar panel installation, mediated in the implementation of the survey and collected 123 completed questionnaires in May and June 2015. The heteroscedasticity-corrected OLS estimates two equations identifying and quantifying factors influencing the purchase price of solar panels and rural household monthly energy bill savings after installation using the gathered data. Among sociodemographic variables, increasing age was associated with an increasing price paid for the panels, but education was associated with paying a lower price for solar panels and lower self-reported energy bill savings. Panel purchase price increased if the respondent was a farmer, viewed subsidies as important, and preferred domestically manufactured panels. Location of household increased the price as compared to the reference county. Savings on monthly energy bills increased if respondent had a positive view of solar energy, expected a decrease in the bill following the purchase of panels, and heated large areas in the house. Subsidy programs have been important in increased household solar energy utilization, especially among farm households, while self-reported energy bill savings increased with positive attitudes towards renewable energy and the larger heated areas in rural residences.

Environmental horticulture firms provide a variety of commercial/residential landscape products and services encompassing ornamental plant production, design, installation, and maintenance. The companies generate tons of waste including plastic containers, trays, and greenhouse/field covers, creating the need to reduce and utilize plastic waste. Based on survey data collected in Georgia in 2013, this paper investigates determinants of the environmental horticulture firms' recycling decision (plastic containers, flats, and greenhouse poly). Our findings indicate that the decision to discard vs. recycle plastic containers, flats, and greenhouse poly is significantly influenced by firm scope, size, location, and partnership with recycling providers, as well as whether recycling providers offer additional waste pickup services. Insights from this study are of use to local governments and environmental organizations interested in increasing horticultural firm participation in recycling programs and lowering the volume of plastic destined for landfills.

Environmental horticulture firms supply products and services related to the design, installation, and maintenance of commercial and residential landscapes. An important issue in the environmental horticulture sector is the reduction and utilization of horticultural waste including plastic containers, trays, plastic greenhouse covers and field covers, and plastic bags. Using data collected through a survey in 2013, this paper identifies factors that influence the sector’s decision to participate in waste recycling programs in Georgia, USA. The study employs a decision model. Results indicate that significant determinants of the recycle decision include the firm size, motivation for recycling, current recycling situation, as well as owner/manager education level. To help firms to recycle, local governments, the environmental horticulture sector, and environmental protection organizations need to focus on lower-revenue and small size firms, broadly disseminate recycle program information, and enhance the local recycler’s services.

Renewable energy (RE) sources are often locally available and have the potential to lessen the rural dependence on the national power grid, reducing disruptions in power supplies and the heavy dependence on coal combustion. Poland faces an EU mandate of a 15% share of renewables in energy generation by 2020. However, the installations intended to supply several types of RE encountered local opposition, forcing a cancellation of the planned investments and stressing a need for understanding rural residents&rsquo, attitudes towards RE in general. Using survey data, this paper examines the perception of RE importance among rural residents in eastern Poland. The specified empirical relationship includes the sociodemographic and economic characteristics of residents. Perceptions of the links between health and specific sources of environmental pollution and actions demonstrating energy-saving behavior serve as explanatory variables. The performance of the estimated logit equation was rigorously tested. The probability of attaching importance to RE by rural residents increases most if a respondent displayed an energy-saving behavior, has certain demographic characteristics, and links health to environmental pollution caused by coal combustion. The graphic depiction of the effects of selected variables succinctly communicates possible future programs aimed at strengthening the rural population support of RE.

The present study identifies factors influencing preferences for common groundnut products using information about product perceptions from residents in Ghana's cities collected in 2011. In Ghana, domestically produced groundnuts, processed into a variety of groundnut products, are a vital source of protein and other nutrients.Response summaries provide insights about the eating frequency of various products, whereas a bivariate ordered probit model identifies factors influencing preferences for groundnut paste and roasted groundnuts. Attributes such as taste, protein content and healthfulness are important for roasted groundnuts, whereas aroma, taste and protein content are associated with a preference for groundnut paste. Large households prefer paste, whereas the less educated and those from households with children prefer roasted groundnuts. Adding a child (4-12 years old) increases probability of 'liking very much' roasted groundnuts and an additional adult at home changes that probability regarding groundnut paste. College-educated consumers prefer groundnut paste less than those with less education. Consumers from Tamale and Takoradi prefer roasted groundnuts and groundnut paste more than Accra households.Taste and protein content are attributes of groundnut paste and roasted groundnuts preferred by consumers. Location is a significant factor shaping preference for roasted groundnuts and groundnut paste. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Environmental horticulture firms provide a variety of commercial/residential landscape products and services encompassing ornamental plant production, design, installation, and maintenance. The companies generate tons of waste including plastic containers, trays, and greenhouse/field covers, creating the need to reduce and utilize plastic waste. Based on survey data collected in Georgia in 2013, this paper investigates determinants of the environmental horticulture firms’ recycling decision (plastic containers, flats, and greenhouse poly) as well as factors influencing total quantity of recyclable materials discarded by firms. Our findings indicate that the decision to discard vs. recycle plastic containers, flats, and greenhouse poly is significantly influenced by firm scope, size, location, and partnership with recycling providers, as well as whether recycling providers offer additional waste pickup services. In terms of total quantity of discarded waste, high revenue firms with a focus on landscape maintenance and plant nurseries are found to throw away more recyclable materials compared to firms with another business focus. Insights from this study are of use to local governments and environmental organizations interested in increasing horticultural firm participation in recycling programs and lowering the volume of plastic destined for landfills.

Alaska’s Tongass National Forest is nearly 17 million acres (6.8 million hectares) in size. Located in the southeast part of the state, its eastern boundary is shared with British Columbia, Canada. The national forest is mainly composed of Pacific Northwest coniferous tree species situated in a temperate costal rainforest. In addition to mainland areas, the forest is composed of numerous islands. Recreation, timber production, cultural services, wilderness, biodiversity, and aesthetic values all guided the development of the most recent forest plan. This chapter briefly describes the process employed by the U.S. Forest Service, the issues influencing the development of the plan, and some of the outcomes that were projected should the plan be fully implemented. Interest in the management of the Tongass National Forest is high, and some of the challenges to plan development and plan implementation are described. The national forest has an important presence in the state of Alaska, and public management of these lands involves challenges and opportunities that can be of interest to land managers of other North American forests.

This paper examines the cost efficiency of dairy farms in 2 important regions of commercial milk production in Poland (i.e., Wielkopolskie and Podlaskie). Both regions gained importance following the market-driven resource allocation mechanism adopted after Poland's transition to the market economy in 1989 and accession to the European Union (EU) in 2004. The elimination of the dairy quota system in the EU in 2015 offers new expansion opportunities. The analysis of trends in cow numbers, milk production, and yield per cow shows different patterns of expansion of the dairy sector in the 2 regions. We selected dairy farm data from the Farm Accounts Data Network database for both regions and applied the cost frontier estimation model to calculate the relative cost-efficiency index for the period 2004 to 2009. The indexes compare each farm in the sample to the most efficient dairy farm in each region separately. Additionally, the top 5% of dairy farms with the highest relative cost efficiency index from each region were compared in terms of production costs with published results from a study using the representative farm approach. The comparison of results from 2 different studies permits a conclusion that Wielkopolskie and Podlaskie dairy farms are able to compete with farms from the 4 largest milk-producing countries in the EU. Although both regions can improve yields per cow, especially Podlaskie, both regions are likely to take advantage of the expansion opportunities offered by the 2015 termination of the milk quota system.

The majority of consumers across the globe do not eat the WHO daily recommended amount of fruits and vegetables. Actual consumption is influenced by a multitude of factors. This chapter focuses on household income and expenditure to illustrate the variation of fresh fruit and vegetable consumption using primary and secondary data from household surveys in Ghana, Poland, Republic of Korea and Uganda. Income importance is examined by tracking fresh produce expenditure by quantile or income category suggesting that low income households tend to limit fresh fruit purchases more than fresh vegetables. Households with the highest income disproportionately outspend all other households regardless of the country’s economic development and present special postharvest requirements. Illustration of other socio-economic factors and their relevance to fresh produce consumption is provided. There are similarities in terms of the most frequent consumption of vegetables across countries, but there is variation in the frequency of fresh fruit consumption, opening opportunities for trade.