Search

Abstract Background Since 2008, children in Catalonia (Spain) have suffered a period of great economic deprivation. This situation has generated broad-ranging health inequalities in a variety of diseases. It is not known how these inequalities have changed over time. The aim of the present study is to determine trends in inequalities over this period in ten relevant diseases in children according to sex and age. Methods A retrospective cross-sectional population-based study of all children under 15 years old resident in Catalonia during the 2014–2021 period (over 1.2 million children/year) and of their diagnoses registered by the Catalan Health System. Health inequalities were estimated by calculating the relative index of inequality and time trends using logistic regression models. Interaction terms were added to test for the effects of sex on time trends. Results Increasing significant temporal trends in inequalities were shown for both sexes in almost all the diseases or adverse events studied (asthma, injuries, poisoning, congenital anomalies, overweight and obesity), in mood disorders in boys, and in adverse birth outcomes in girls. Adjustment and anxiety and mood disorders in girls showed a decreasing temporal trend in inequalities. More than half of the diseases and adverse events studied experienced significant annual increases in inequality. Poisoning stood out with an average annual increase of 8.65% [4.30, 13.00], p ≤ 0.001 in boys and 8.64% [5.76, 11.52], p ≤ 0.001) in girls, followed by obesity with increases of 5.52% [4.15, 6.90], p =

Introduction: Biological and sociocultural factors may lead to a significant gender bias in the treatment of major depression and thus contribute to accentuating gender inequalities. However, the influence of the general practitioner’s (GP’s) sex on the prescription of antidepressants has not been adequately assessed in previous work and remains unclear. This retrospective cohort study aims to determine the influence of GP and patient sex on the treatment of major depression.Methods: The study population comprised 87,629 patients (33.56% male patients and 66.44% female patients) aged over 15 years newly diagnosed with major depression recorded between 2017 and 2019 in Catalonia, Spain. Logistic regression models were used to evaluate the effect of GP sex on the therapeutic strategy (i.e., whether antidepressants were prescribed at the first diagnostic visit). Cox proportional hazards models and survival analyses were conducted to compare, according to GP and patient sex, the probability that a patient would be prescribed an antidepressant at any time during the study period. Finally, a multiple linear regression analysis was performed to assess the pharmacological intensity of the treatment [monthly fluoxetine-equivalent defined daily dose (DDD)].Results: Female patients were more likely to be prescribed an antidepressant at the time of diagnosis, both by male [OR = 1.11, 95% CI = (1.05, 1.17), p

Abstract Introduction Gender bias in healthcare is understood as a misconception of the differences between males and females that may generate healthcare disparities and discrimination against one sex. However, is not well known how this implicit bias is manifested in pediatric clinical praxis. Thus, the goal of this study is to explore and analyse the attitudes of health personnel toward a possible gender bias in pediatric care in Catalonia. Methods We undertake a descriptive and exploratory study applying a qualitative research methodology based on hermeneutic phenomenology and Grounded Theory using the focus group technique. The opinions collected were classified into four categories and 22 subcategories, and subsequently analyzed. Results Three main ideas stood out regarding situations that might be affected by gender bias: (1) attitudes of health personnel and perceptions with regard to mental health problems and (to a lesser extent) to physical health problems; (2) the role of the child's family and the professional's assessment of this role; and (3) the professional's attention to children of the opposite sex, especially in the case of genital examinations. Discussion The results stand out that differential attitudes depending on the gender of the child have been observed in clinical practice in pediatrics, which may have an impact on health inequality. Hence, academic training that includes the study and prevention of implicit biases in professional activity, campaigns aimed at the general population on how to detect implicit biases and promoting gender equity in education, should help to avoid the negative consequences of these misconceptions.

Abstract Background The Results Centre is the name of a project that, since 2012, has been openly publishing the results of each healthcare centre in Catalonia, with the idea of promoting benchmarking among centres and transparency toward society. As the project evolves, it has become increasingly necessary to adapt its contents and formats. The objective of this study is to identify the preferences and expectations of healthcare leaders regarding the Results Centre. Methods A qualitative study was conducted using the nominal group technique. Five nominal groups were created with the participation of 58 professionals (26 from hospital care, 16 from primary care, and 16 from long-term care centres). The areas of analysis were: (1) what the Results Centre of the future should be like; (2) what information needs should be addressed; and (3) what novelties should be incorporated to stimulate quality improvement. The spontaneity of ideas, intensity of recommendations, and intergroup consistency were analysed. The study was conducted in April 2019. Results The requirements reported by the participants to be met by the Results Centre included: being a tool for benchmarking and strategic decision-making; adjusted and segmented indicators; non-clinical information (patient experience, socio-economic status, etc.); and data accessible to all stakeholders, including citizens. The ideas were consistent across the different levels of care, although the intensity of recommendations varied depending on their content. Conclusions Regional agencies that are accountable for health outcomes should be consistently committed to adapting to the needs of different stakeholders in the health system. This project is an example of how this requirement has been addressed in Catalonia.

Abstract Background Socioeconomic position (SEP) powerfully affects health status in the childhood population. However, the knowledge of which diseases are more affected by SEP and whose outcomes could be improved by having a more equitable society remains uncertain on a population basis. Methods We measured socioeconomic and gender inequalities in the pre-COVID-19 era for 29 diseases in the entire childhood population in Catalonia to identify which diseases are most impacted by inequalities. This population-based study included 1,449,816 children under 15 years old from 2014 to 2017 (48.52% girls) and each of their registered diagnoses within the Catalonia National Health System. We calculated frequency measures by SEP and their sex ratios for each disease. We estimated four regression-based inequality measures: slope index of inequality, relative index of inequality (RII), absolute population-attributable fraction, and population-attributable fraction. Results Twenty-five of the 29 diseases examined showed SEP inequalities. The diseases with the greatest inequalities in both sexes were tuberculosis, obesity, adjustment and anxiety disorders, essential hypertension, poisoning, short gestation, low birth weight, foetal growth retardation and intrauterine hypoxia and birth asphyxia and trauma (RII ≥ 2.0); only food allergy showed the opposite pattern (RII

Abstract Background According to many conceptual frameworks, the first step in the monitoring cycle of health inequalities is the selection of relevant topics and indicators. However, some difficulties may arise during this selection process due to a high variety of contextual factors that may influence this step. In order to help accomplish this task successfully, a comprehensive review of the most common topics and indicators for measuring and monitoring health inequalities in countries/regions with similar socioeconomic and political status as Catalonia was performed. Methods We describe the processes and criteria used for selecting health indicators from reports, studies, and databases focusing on health inequalities. We also describe how they were grouped into well-known health topics. The topics were filtered and ranked by the number of indicators they accounted for. Results We found 691 indicators used in the study of health inequalities. The indicators were grouped into 120 topics, 34 of which were selected for having five indicators or more. Most commonly found topics in the list include “Life expectancy”, “Infant mortality”, “Obesity and overweight (BMI)”, “Mortality rate”, “Regular smokers/tobacco consumption”, “Self-perceived health”, “Unemployment”, “Mental well-being”, “Cardiovascular disease/hypertension”, “Socioeconomic status (SES)/material deprivation”. Conclusions A wide variety of indicators and topics for the study of health inequalities exist across different countries and organisations, although there are some clear commonalities. Reviewing the use of health indicators is a key step to know the current state of the study of health inequalities and may show how to lead the way in understanding how to overcome them.

Abstract Background Children with medical complexity (CMC) denotes the profile of a child with diverse acute and chronic conditions, making intensive use of the healthcare services and with special health and social needs. Previous studies show that CMC are also affected by the socioeconomic position (SEP) of their family. The aim of this study is to describe the pathologic patterns of CMC and their socioeconomic inequalities in order to better manage their needs, plan healthcare services accordingly, and improve the care models in place. Methods Cross-sectional study with latent class analysis (LCA) of the CMC population under the age of 15 in Catalonia in 2016, using administrative data. LCA was used to define multimorbidity classes based on the presence/absence of 57 conditions. All individuals were assigned to a best-fit class. Each comorbidity class was described and its association with SEP tested. The Adjusted Morbidity Groups classification system (Catalan acronym GMA) was used to identify the CMC. The main outcome measures were SEP, GMA score, sex, and age distribution, in both populations (CMC and non-CMC) and in each of the classes identified. Results 71% of the CMC population had at least one parent with no employment or an annual income of less than €18,000. Four comorbidity classes were identified in the CMC: oncology (36.0%), neurodevelopment (13.7%), congenital and perinatal (19.8%), and respiratory (30.5%). SEP associations were: oncology OR 1.9 in boys and 2.0 in girls; neurodevelopment OR 2.3 in boys and 1.8 in girls; congenital and perinatal OR 1.7 in boys and 2.1 in girls; and respiratory OR 2.0 in boys and 2.0 in girls. Conclusions Our findings show the existence of four different patterns of comorbidities in CMC and a significantly high proportion of lower SEP children in all classes. These results could benefit CMC management by creating more efficient multidisciplinary medical teams according to each comorbidity class and a holistic perspective taking into account its socioeconomic vulnerability.

Resumen: Objetivo: Construir un índice de privación para la asignación del presupuesto de los equipos de atención primaria de Cataluña, válido tanto para entornos urbanos como rurales y actualizable con más frecuencia que los índices construidos con las variables censales. Método: A partir de la revisión de los índices de privación más comunes se seleccionaron las variables existentes de fuentes que permiten una actualización frecuente y que son representativas del ámbito territorial de las áreas básicas de salud. Se calcularon las correlaciones entre las variables escogidas y las variables de utilización de atención sanitaria y morbilidad. Se aplicó el análisis de componentes principales. Finalmente, se calcularon las correlaciones entre el índice construido y el índice MEDEA, y con variables de utilización de recursos y morbilidad para diferentes tramos de dispersión poblacional. Resultados: Las variables de renta, ocupación y nivel de estudios son las que tienen más correlación con la utilización de atención sanitaria y la morbilidad. El índice socioeconómico compuesto (ISC) tiene un rango de −0,01 a 5,68, una media de 2,60 y una desviación estándar de 0,91. La correlación entre el ISC y el MEDEA es de 0,89. El ISC se correlaciona con la utilización de atención sanitaria tanto en los entornos urbanos como en los rurales, aunque en estos últimos la asociación es menor. Conclusiones: El ISC se ha construido con datos que permiten una actualización frecuente, y se ha integrado en el modelo de asignación de recursos de la atención primaria a partir de 2017. Abstract: Objective: To build a deprivation index for the assignation of the budgets of the primary healthcare teams in Catalonia (Spain) valid for both urban and rural environments and updatable with greater frequency than indices built from census variables. Method: Starting from a review of the most common deprivation indices, variables were selected from sources that allow frequent updating and are representative at the territorial level of primary care. The correlations were calculated between the chosen variables and variables of need for healthcare and morbidity. principal components analysis was applied. Finally, the correlations of the index built with the MEDEA index and with variables of use of healthcare resources and morbidity was calculated stratifying by geographical dispersion. Results: The variables of income, occupation and education are the ones with the highest correlation with the need for healthcare and morbidity. The composed socioeconomic index (CSI) ranges from −.01 to 5.68, with an average value of 2.60 and a standard deviation of .91. The correlation between the CSI and the MEDEA index is .89. The CSI correlates with use for healthcare in both urban and rural environments, although in rural environments the association is lower. Conclusions: The CSI was built with data that allow frequent updating and was integrated in the model for allocating resources to primary healthcare starting in 2017. Palabras clave: Índice de privación, Desigualdades en salud, Datos administrativos, Análisis de componentes principales, Financiación de la atención primaria, Keywords: Deprivation index, Health inequalities, Administrative data, Principal components analysis, Primary care financing

Background: In recent years, worldwide opioid use has seen a sharp increase, especially for the treatment of chronic non-cancer pain. Catalonia is no exception to this trend. However, no recent studies have addressed the socioeconomic and gender inequalities in opioid use in the different geographical areas of Catalonia.Methods: We performed an ecological study to analyse the associations between socioeconomic status, gender and the use of opioids in the 372 Health Areas of Catalonia. Robust Poisson models were performed to analyse the data provided from the Central Register of Insured Persons and dispensing data from the Electronic Prescription Database.Results: The results show that socioeconomic status has a major impact on opioid use, with the most deprived areas presenting the highest levels of use. There are major inequalities in the DDD/1,000 inhabitants per areas. Moreover, women have much higher utilization rates than men, especially in more deprived areas. The greatest difference is observed in the use of weak opioids in women: the DDD/1,000 inhabitants per day was 2.34 in the area with the lowest use, compared with 22.18 in the area with the highest use.Conclusions: Our findings suggest that stronger action is needed to promote best practices in prescribing for chronic pain and to reduce socioeconomic and gender variation between geographical areas. This study provides a model for routine monitoring of opioid prescription for targeted interventions aimed at lowering high-dose consumption in specifically identified areas.

Resumen: Objetivo: Identificar y priorizar, por su relevancia, medidas, intervenciones e instrumentos indispensables para respaldar el establecimiento de un marco estratégico en el Sistema Nacional de Salud de España, y garantizar el ejercicio corresponsable e informado de la autonomía de sus usuarios y pacientes en la toma de decisiones compartidas. Método: Consulta grupal, estructurada de acuerdo con procedimientos adaptados de las técnicas de «tormenta de ideas», grupo nominal y método de consenso Rand. Resultados: Las 10 personas consultadas propusieron 53 posibles actuaciones centradas en medidas estructurales «macro» (soporte jurídico garantista, priorización explícita de la toma de decisiones compartidas, medidas curriculares del sistema docente y dinamización del cambio cultural), «meso» (generación y difusión de información acreditada por líneas de investigación específicas e instrumentos de ayuda a la toma de decisiones compartidas) y «micro» (estímulo a la inserción de la toma de decisiones compartidas en la relación de agencia con la ciudadanía y usuarios del sistema sanitario). Conclusiones: El consenso emergente de la consulta apunta a la necesidad de incorporar, a las prioridades estratégicas de la política sanitaria, medidas estructurales que avalen y dinamicen el desarrollo de la toma de decisiones compartidas en una serie de áreas específicas de evolución y cambio en la relación entre profesionales de la salud y pacientes como atributo de calidad en el acceso a las prestaciones y los servicios del sistema público de salud. Abstract: Objective: Identify and prioritize according to their relevance, measures, interventions and indispensable instruments to support the establishment of a strategic framework in the Spanish National Health System to enable the responsible and informed exercise of the autonomy of its users and patients for shared decision-making. Method: Group consultation, structured according to procedures adapted from brainstorming techniques, nominal group and Rand consensus method. Results: The 10 panellists proposed 53 possible actions focusing on “macro” structural measures (legal support and explicit prioritization of shared decision-making on health policy, curricular measures of the teaching system and dynamisation of cultural change), “meso” (generation and dissemination of accredited information by specific research lines and instruments to help shared decision-making), and “micro” activities (measures to stimulate the introduction of shared decision-making in the agency relationship with citizen and users of the healthcare system). Conclusions: The consensus emerging from the consultation points to the need to incorporate into the strategic priorities of health policy, structural measures that support and encourage the development of shared decision-making in a number of specific areas of evolution and change in the relationship between health professionals and patients as an attribute of quality in access to the benefits and services of the public healthcare system. Palabras clave: Investigación cualitativa, Prioridades de salud, Toma de decisiones, Programas nacionales de salud, Keywords: Qualitative research, Health priorities, Decision making, National health programs

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la distribución del gasto sanitario según el ámbito asistencial y las características de los pacientes, utilizando microdatos del uso de servicios sanitarios del total de la población de Cataluña (España). Método: Se ha aplicado una tarifa o un gasto indirecto a todos los actos sanitarios financiados por CatSalut durante 2014, computando el gasto sanitario realizado por cada persona y sumando para todos los habitantes de Cataluña. Resultados: La suma del gasto sanitario realizado por todos los habitantes de Cataluña representa el 97,0% del presupuesto de CatSalut. La mitad de la población origina el 3,6% del gasto sanitario total (71 € por persona); un 1% de la población gastó el 23% del gasto (22.852 € por persona). El gasto medio más elevado, tanto en mujeres como en hombres, se da entre los 80 y los 89 años de edad. La población con una enfermedad crónica tiene un gasto medio anual de 413 €; con cinco, de 2413 €; y con 10, de 9626€. El gasto medio varía según patologías, desde los 2854 € en los pacientes con depresión grave a los 8097 € de los pacientes con infección por el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana/sida. Conclusiones: Los resultados son sumamente útiles para la planificación de los servicios sanitarios y para la priorización de intervenciones de política sanitaria en los colectivos con más necesidades. Abstract: Objective: To analyse the distribution of the expenditure according to the healthcare services and characteristics of patients, using the microdata of the Catalan population's use of healthcare services. Methods: A fee or an indirect cost has been applied to all healthcare activities financed by CatSalut during 2014, computing the health expenditure made up by each person and adding it all up for the inhabitants of Catalonia (Spain). Results: The sum of the healthcare expenditure made by all the inhabitants of Catalonia represents 97.0% of the CatSalut budget. Half of the population accounts for 3.6% of total healthcare expenditure (71€ per person); 1% of the population spends 23% of the expenditure (22,852€ per person). The highest average expenditure, in both women and men, occurs between the age of 80 and 89. The population with a chronic disease has an average annual expenditure of 413€, with 5 of 2,413€, and 10 of 9,626€. The average cost varies according to pathologies, from 2,854€ in patients with severe depression to 8,097€ in patients with HIV-AIDS. Conclusions: The results are extremely useful for healthcare planning and for the prioritization of health policy interventions in groups with most needs. Palabras clave: Gasto sanitario, Política sanitaria, Planificación sanitaria, Poblacional, Estado de salud, Keywords: Health care cost, Health policy, Health planning, Population-based, Health status

Summary: Background: In Spain, legislation was passed in 2012 excluding undocumented migrants from the public health-care system. Catalonia was one of the Spanish regions that did not implement this legislation, and continued to guarantee access to health care to the whole population. We aimed to analyse health-care use and health status among undocumented migrants in Catalonia, and compare health-care use and health status with legal residents classified according to their socioeconomic position (SEP). Methods: We did a population-based, cross-sectional study, with administrative individual data. The study included the resident population in Catalonia, Spain, in 2017, aged younger than 65 years and with a maximum annual income of less than €18 000 per year, and classified into three socioeconomic (SEP) groups—low SEP, very low SEP, and undocumented migrants. Indicators regarding health-care service use (primary care, emergency care, mental health care, acute care), drug prescriptions, and selected chronic and infectious diseases were analysed. Findings: Between Jan 1 and Dec 31, 2017, 4 071 988 residents of Catalonia were included in this study; undocumented migrants represented 2·8% (n=113 450) of this population. Of all undocumented migrants, 25 942 (61·0%) female participants aged 15–64 years and 19 819 (46·0%) male participants aged 15–64 years attended primary health-care centres: these rates were lower than in individuals with a very low SEP (84·8% in female participants and 72·1% in male participants). Hospital admission rates among male participants aged 15–64 years in the very low SEP group were more than three times as high as in undocumented migrants (111·6 vs 35·7). The highest tuberculosis rate was found in undocumented male migrants (incidence rate 4·35 [95% CI 3·55–5·16]). Interpretation: Undocumented migrants made less use of health-care services than those in the low and very low SEP groups, but for some infectious diseases, incidence was higher in undocumented migrants. These results constitute an additional argument to support the maintenance of universal health coverage for all citizens. Funding: None.

BackgroundThe number of days spent at home in the last six months of life has been proposed as a comprehensive indicator of high-value patient-centered care; however, information regarding the determinants of this outcome is scarce, particularly among the general population. We investigated the determinants of spending time at home within the six months preceding death.MethodsPopulation-based, retrospective analysis of administrative databases of the Catalan government. The analysis included adult (≥18 years) individuals who died in Catalonia (North-east Spain) in 2017 and met the McNamara criteria for palliative care. The primary outcome was the number of days spent at home within the last 180 days of life. Other variables included the cause of death, demographic characteristics, and socioeconomic status, stratified as very low, low, mid, and high level.ResultsThe analysis included 40,137 individuals (19,510 women; 20,627 men), who spent a median of 140 days (IQR 16-171) at home within the six months preceding death (women 140 [16-171]; men 150 [100-171]). Female gender was an independent factor of staying fewer days at home (OR 0.80 [95% CI 0.77-0.82]; pConclusionsOur results suggest that end-of-life care is associated with gender and socioeconomic inequalities; women and individuals with lower socioeconomic status spend less time at home within the last 180 days of life.

Mental disorders (MD) are one of the main causes of the disease burden worldwide. Associations between socioeconomic status (SES) and presence of MD in parents have been related with increased odds of MD in offspring. However, there is a lack of population-based research in this field. The aim of the present study was to examine together the relationship between the presence of MD in children, and the SES and presence of MD in their parents, in a whole of population data. A gender approach was undertaken aiming to discern how these variables influence children's mental health when related with the father and the mother. Using administrative individual data from the National Health System, a retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted. The entire children population aged 6 to 15 resident in Catalonia in 2017 was examined. A logistic regression model was performed. Low SES was associated with increased odds of children's MD. Offspring of a parent with MD were at more risk of presenting MD than offspring of parents without these problems. Although these associations were consistent for both boys and girls when looking at the father's or mother's SES and MDs, the mother's SES and MDs showed a higher association with the offspring's MDs than the father's. Lowest associations, found for boys when looking at the father's SES and MDs, were: OR of 1.21, 95%CI 1.16 to 1.27 for lowest SES, and OR of 1.66, 95%CI 1.61 to 1.70 for parental MDs. Children's familiar environment, which includes SES and mental health of parents, plays an important role in their mental health. Socially constructed gender roles interfere with SES and parent's MD. These findings support the relevance of examining MD and its risk factors within a gender approach.

IntroductionIn Catalonia caesarean rates have always been analysed as a single percentage. The objective is to estimate caesarean section rates using the Robson classification in publicly funded hospitals in Catalonia between 2013 and 2017, considering sociodemographic, institutional and obstetric characteristics.Materials and methodsCross-sectional population-based study in Catalonia including all women delivering within publicly funded hospitals between 2013-2017 (n = 210 020). The modified Robson classification distribution was estimated, the caesarean rate and the overall contribution, analysed for each year, and by confounders, through logistic regression models.ResultsCS rates decreased steadily between 2013 and 2017 in Catalonia within publicly funded hospitals from 24.3% to 22.8% (cOR 0.92, 95% CI; 0.89 to 0.95). Once adjusted for changes in sociodemographic, institutional and obstetric characteristics the observed decline was even more pronounced (aOR 0.87, 95% CI; 0.84 to 0.90). Within the different groups of Robson once adjusted for confounders, groups 1+2 (aOR 0.88, 95% CI; 0.83 to 0.93), 3+4 (aOR 0.83, 95% CI; 0.78 to 0.89) and 10 (aOR 0.78, 95% CI; 0.68 to 0.90) presented a reduction in caesarean section rates, whereas group 5 showed no significant decrease (aOR 0.95, 95% CI; 0.87 to 1.03%).ConclusionsThe decrease in caesarean section rates in Catalonia is more pronounced when adjusted for known confounders, suggesting retrospective overutilization of caesarean section and percentages of (in)adequacy in the past. In any case, it remains above the recommended by experts. Further efforts should be made to achieve optimum rates, including improvement on obstetric data collection.

There are different phenotypes of obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA), many of which have not been characterised. Identification of these different phenotypes is important in defining prognosis and guiding the therapeutic strategy. The aim of this study was to characterise the entire population of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)-treated patients in Catalonia and identify specific patient profiles using cluster analysis. A total of 72,217 CPAP-treated patients who contacted the Catalan Health System (CatSalut) during the years 2012 and 2013 were included. Six clusters were identified, classified as "Neoplastic patients" (Cluster 1, 10.4%), "Metabolic syndrome patients" (Cluster 2, 27.7%), "Asthmatic patients" (Cluster 3, 5.8%), "Musculoskeletal and joint disorder patients" (Cluster 4, 10.3%), "Patients with few comorbidities" (Cluster 5, 35.6%) and "Oldest and cardiac disease patients" (Cluster 6, 10.2%). Healthcare facility use and mortality were highest in patients from Cluster 1 and 6. Conversely, patients in Clusters 2 and 4 had low morbidity, mortality and healthcare resource use. Our findings highlight the heterogeneity of CPAP-treated patients, and suggest that OSA is associated with a different prognosis in the clusters identified. These results suggest the need for a comprehensive and individualised approach to CPAP treatment of OSA.

En este artículo nos preocuparemos por el grado en que la situación socioeconómica de un individuo se hereda y cómo puede aumentarse la igualdad de oportunidades para mejorar la movilidad social. La pobreza y la deprivación pueden dejar de ser dinásticas si el ascensor social funciona. En España, la desigualdad de renta, medida por el coeficiente de Gini, ha pasado de 0,31 en 2006 a 0,35 en 2012 (nos alejamos de los países escandinavos y centroeuropeos para asemejarnos más en desigualdades de renta al Reino Unido o Estados Unidos), y el grado de movilidad intergeneracional se sitúa entre el de Italia y el de Estados Unidos. Para cambiar esta situación y hacer que el ascensor social funcione es necesario mejorar la educación primaria y orientar el sistema sanitario hacia la atención primaria, lo cual no será posible sin una mejor calidad de la política y de las instituciones que la están condicionando.

Objective: To obtain versions of the Primary Care Assessment Tools (PCAT)-Facility version to evaluate primary care (PC) in the Spanish context, and to analyze its feasibility, reliability and validity. Methods: Cultural adaptation was performed through the use of forward and backward translations into Spanish and Catalan, observations and opinions of a panel of experts, and cognitive interviews with target users (PC team managers). A pilot phase was carried out in a sample of 130 managers of PC teams in Catalonia. A post-test questionnaire was sent 4-5 months later to all 194 managers of PC teams in the Barcelona health region. Analysis of metric properties included: 1) description of items and verification of Likert assumptions, since domain scores are obtained by summing item scores; 2) reliability analysis (Cronbach's alpha coefficient, Pearson's correlation coefficient, test-retest analysis); and 3) validity analysis (expert panel, cognitive interviews, and convergent and discriminant validity). Results: Substantial adaptation was required for the accessory section of the questionnaire, but less was required in PC domain measurements. Items were added to the comprehensiveness domain to reflect services usually available in Spain. The lowest Cronbach's alpha scores were found for Access (0.62) and Coordination (0.59 and 0.65), while values were >0.70 for the remaining domains. Conclusion: The Spanish version of the PCAT-Facility questionnaire is now available and shows adequate reliability and validity. The Spanish PCAT version will facilitate national and international comparisons of PC and analysis of the determinants of quality of service provision.Objetivo: Obtener versiones del Primary Care Assessment Tools-Facility version como herramienta de evaluación de la atención primaria (AP) para la aplicación en el contexto español, y analizar su fiabilidad y validez. Métodos: Se realizó una adaptación cultural con traducciones y retrotraducciones al español y al catalán, observaciones y opiniones de un panel de expertos y entrevistas cognitivas con usuarios finales (directivos del equipo de AP). Se realizó una fase piloto con una muestra de 130 directivos de AP de Cataluña. Una versión final se envió 4-5 meses después a los 194 directivos de los equipos de la región sanitaria de Barcelona. El análisis de las propiedades métricas incluyó: 1) descripción de ítems y verificación de las asunciones de la escala Likert, porque las puntuaciones de los dominios se obtienen sumando los ítems; 2) análisis de fiabilidad (alfa de Cronbach, coeficiente de correlación de Pearson, análisis test-retest); y 3) análisis de validez (panel de expertos, entrevistas cognitivas, validez convergente y discriminante). Resultados: Se requirió una importante adaptación de las secciones accesorias del cuestionario, pero no en las de los dominios de AP. Se añadieron ítems en la dimensión de globalidad. Las menores puntuaciones del alfa de Cronbach se encontraron en acceso (0,62) y coordinación (0,59 y 0,65); el resto de los dominios tuvieron valores > 0,70. Conclusión: Disponemos de una versión española del PCAT - Equipo de Atención Primaria con unas adecuadas fiabilidad y validez, que facilitará comparaciones nacionales e internacionales, y el análisis de los determinantes de una provisión de servicios de calidad.

Este trabajo documenta la experiencia de 25 años de informes de salud anuales en la ciudad de Barcelona y extrae algunos elementos que pueden ser útiles en otros contextos, particularizando el análisis en el Informe de Salud de 2008. Se muestra el marco conceptual, el proceso de elaboración del informe, las fuentes de información utilizadas y los contenidos del mismo. Se evalúa la difusión del Informe de Salud de 2008, tanto a nivel político como a los medios de comunicación, a los profesionales y a la ciudadanía. Además se analiza la repercusión del informe como herramienta de cambio social y de planificación.

Las epidemias de gripe son causa de morbi-mortalidad y tienen un gran impacto socio-económico. Ocasionalmente, los brotes de gripe generan pandemias. La última originada por el virus de la Gripe (H1N1)2009. Teniendo en cuenta la evidencia actualmente disponible y siendo la gripe una de las enfermedades de mayor impacto epidemiológico y máxima relevancia en la gestión de los servicios sanitarios, la evaluación de la utilización de recursos socio-sanitarios y sus costes asociados debería ser prioritaria. Con el objetivo de dar respuesta a esta necesidad se puso en marcha este estudio, cuyo protocolo de investigación se detalla en este manuscrito. Se trata de un estudio observacional, longitudinal y multicéntrico que pretende comparar los costes sanitarios con los derivados de la pérdida de productividad, así como estimar los costes incrementales y el coste-utilidad de las intervenciones de prevención y tratamiento, todo ello en pacientes hospitalizados y ambulatorios. Se recogerá (evaluación basal y seguimiento) información sociodemográfica, clínica, de utilización de recursos socio-sanitarios y estado de salud. Los análisis se realizarán bajo la perspectiva de la sociedad y el enfoque de la incidencia. Para la valoración monetaria se imputará el coste unitario a la frecuencia de utilización. Se calcularán los costes incrementales de las estrategias de prevención y tratamiento. El coste-utilidad se estimará a partir de la pérdida de utilidad y se analizará la pérdida global de años de vida ajustados por calidad. Nuestro estudio aportará información original que permitirá estimar el impacto económico de la gripe y ayudará en la toma de decisiones en la gestión sanitaria.

Aunque ha disminuido en las últimas décadas, el consumode alcohol en el Estado español sigue siendo elevado en comparación con el resto de países europeos. El patrón de consumomuestra una tendencia convergente con el patrón europeo, conuna disminución del consumo de vino y un aumento del de cerveza. Así mismo, la mortalidad relacionada con el consumo de alcohol también ha disminuido en los últimos veinte años, a pesar de seguir siendo una de las principales causas de muerte. Elcoste directo sanitario y el coste indirecto de las enfermedadestotal y parcialmente atribuibles al consumo de alcohol en elaño 2007 fue de 2.669,74 millones de euros. El régimen fiscalefectivo en el Estado español grava muy poco las bebidas alcohólicas, por lo que un aumento substancial de la misma, en lalínea de algunos países europeos, podría ser una opción a teneren cuenta para acelerar la disminución de la carga de morbimortalidad asociada al consumo de alcohol.

La evaluación económica de tecnologías sanitarias se ha convertido en los últimos años en Europa en una herramienta de primer orden para los gestores sanitarios en sus estrategias de asignación de recursos sanitarios y de adopción de nuevas tecnologías. España fue uno de los países pioneros en realizar propuestas de estandarización metodológica aplicable a estudios de evaluación económica. No obstante, la falta de decisión política y de apoyo de los gestores sanitarios a este tipo de herramientas hizo que las propuestas cayeran en desuso. Sin embargo, lo esperable es que a medio plazo sea cada vez más habitual que las nuevas tecnologías sanitarias financiadas por el Sistema Nacional de Salud deban aportar una adecuada evidencia de su valor terapéutico y social en comparación con su coste. Llegado ese momento, los actores del sistema requerirán una serie de reglas claras y consensuadas por parte de los agentes del sistema sobre las cuestiones técnicas o metodológicas que deben respetar los estudios de evaluación de tecnologías sanitarias. Por este motivo, las presentes recomendaciones orientan sobre cómo realizar y analizar los estudios de evaluación económica de calidad. Las recomendaciones aparecen bajo 17 encabezamientos o dominios, y bajo cada recomendación hay además un comentario, en el cual se justifican y discuten las propuestas en relación con otras opciones posibles.Over the last few years, economic evaluation of health technologies has become a major tool used by European health policy decision-makers to create strategies for prioritizing the allocation of health resources and the approval of new technologies. Spain was a pioneer in proposing the standardization of methodology applicable to economic evaluation studies. However, because health policy decision-makers refused to support the initiative, the methodology was never put into practice. In the medium term, evidence of the economic value of new health technologies financed by the national health system will probably be increasingly required. At that time, stakeholders and decision-makers will have to agree upon a clear and concise set of rules on the technical and methodological issues that must be followed by economic evaluations of health technologies. Consequently, we have provided guidelines and recommendations for producing first-rate economic evaluations. The recommendations appear under seventeen headings or sections. In each case, the recommended requirements to be satisfied by an economic evaluation of health technologies are provided and each recommendation is followed by a commentary, providing a justification and comparing and contrasting the proposal with other available alternatives.

Objetivo: Analizar la evolución de las desigualdades socioeconómicas en la mortalidad por todas las causas en Barcelona durante los años 1983-2004. Métodos: Estudio ecológico de tendencias con 4 cortes transversales (1983-1988, 1989-1994, 1995-1999 y 2000-2004), con el área básica de salud (ABS) como unidad de análisis. La población de estudio fueron los varones y mujeres residentes en Barcelona, de 20 o más años de edad. Las fuentes de información fueron el registro de mortalidad, el padrón municipal y el censo de habitantes y viviendas. Como variable dependiente se utilizó la tasa de mortalidad específica (TME) por todas las causas. Como variable independiente se calculó un índice compuesto de privación socioeconómica de las ABS; las ABS se agruparon en cuartiles según los valores del índice. Se ajustaron modelos de Poisson para estimar el riesgo relativo (RR) de mortalidad por todas las causas en las 4 agrupaciones de ABS, estratificado por grupos de edad y sexo. Resultados: En todos los períodos de estudio se observan desigualdades en la mortalidad según el ABS de residencia, tanto en varones como en mujeres. Las TME de las ABS con mayor privación socioeconómica fueron mayores que las de aquellas con menor privación, y también fueron mayores en los varones que en las mujeres. Asimismo, los grupos de edad más jóvenes presentan mayor RR de mortalidad que los de edad avanzada. No obstante, las desigualdades disminuyeron tanto en términos absolutos como en términos relativos a partir del segundo período de estudio, especialmente en los varones. Conclusiones: Este estudio ha demostrado que, a pesar de haber desigualdades en mortalidad en las ABS de Barcelona, éstas han disminuido a lo largo de 2 décadas. Las políticas públicas deberían tener en cuenta esta información en el abordaje de las desigualdades entre ABS.Objective: To analyze the trend in socioeconomic inequalities in all-cause mortality in Barcelona from 1983 to 2004. Methods: We performed an ecological study of trends over 4 cross-sections (1983-1988, 1989-1994, 1995-1999 and 2000-2004), with the basic health area (BHA) as the unit of analysis. The study population consisted of men and women aged 20 years or more living in Barcelona. The information sources were the mortality registry, the municipal census and the census of inhabitants and dwellings. The age- and sex-specific mortality rate (ASMR) for all causes was used as the dependent variable. As the independent variable, a composite index of socioeconomic deprivation of the BHA was calculated; BHAs were grouped in quartiles according to the values on the index. Poisson models were adjusted to estimate the relative risk of mortality from all causes in the 4 groups of BHA, stratified by age groups and sex. Results: In all the study periods, inequalities in mortality were found, depending on the BHA of residence, both for men and for women: the ASMR of the most deprived BHAs were greater than those of less deprived BHA, and were greater among men than among women. Likewise, relative risks in the youngest age groups were higher than in the oldest age groups. However, from the second to fourth study periods, inequalities decreased in absolute and relative terms, especially among men. Conclusions: Inequalities in mortality persist in BHA in Barcelona but have decreased over the last 2 decades. Public policies should take this information into account when tackling inequalities among BHA.

La medida del desempeño de los servicios sanitarios está recibiendo una mayor atención debido al aumento del gasto sanitario y de las expectativas de la población, y a la necesidad de obtener el máximo rendimiento de los recursos invertidos. En Cataluña, en el año 2005, aprovechando la experiencia previa de la Agència de Salut Pública de Barcelona y del Consorci Sanitari de Barcelona comparando los servicios sanitarios de Barcelona y Montreal, una beca de investigación de la Agència d'Avaluació de Tecnologia i Recerca Mèdiques, y el interés de planificación sanitaria del Departament de Salut, se puso en marcha el proyecto de análisis del desempeño de los servicios sanitarios de Cataluña. El objetivo de este artículo es presentar el desarrollo del proyecto, mostrar algunos ejemplos que ilustran el tipo de información que se ha podido obtener y el tipo de análisis que esta información permite, exponer posibles explicaciones de los resultados presentados y discutir algunas limitaciones e implicaciones. De hecho, el valor añadido de este proyecto es que permite conocer el desempeño del sistema sanitario en la consecución de sus objetivos, establecer un conjunto de indicadores homogeneizados de referencia y ser una pieza clave en el desarrollo de la Central de Resultats del Departament de Salut de la Generalitat de Catalunya.Performance assessment of healthcare services is receiving greater attention due to increasing health care expenditures, greater expectations among the population, and the need to obtain results from the invested resources. Taking advantage of the existing experience of the Agència de Salut Pública de Barcelona and the Consorci Sanitari de Barcelona, which compared the healthcare services of Barcelona and Montreal, a grant from the Agència d'Avaluació de Tecnologia i Recerca Mèdiques, and the health planning interest of the Departament de Salut, the performance assessment of the Catalan healthcare service project was started in Catalonia in 2005. This article aims to present the development of the project, to provide some examples that illustrate the kind of numerical and graphical information that could be obtained and the kind of analysis that could be performed, to provide possible explanations for the results shown, and to discuss some limitations and implications. Currently, the added value of this project is that it identifies the extent to which the healthcare system is achieving its objectives, establishes a set of homogeneous indicators that could be used in the future, and is a key tool in the development of the Central de Resultats del Departament de Salut de la Generalitat de Catalunya.

Objetivo: Analizar la eficiencia de un programa de prevención del tabaquismo en escolares de Barcelona (programa PASE.bcn). Métodos: Se realizó un análisis de coste-beneficio. Como costes se incluyeron los derivados del diseño y la ejecución del programa. Como beneficios se contabilizaron los costes sanitarios y las pérdidas de productividad evitados. La perspectiva de análisis es la social y el año de referencia es 2005. Resultados: Estimando una efectividad del 1%, el programa PASE.bcn lograría un beneficio anual de 1.558.311,46 €. Los beneficios sanitarios por fumador evitado son de 1997,57 €, mientras que los beneficios indirectos por fumador evitado son de 21.260,80 €. Dado que el coste del programa es de 68.526,03 €, la razón beneficio-coste del programa es de 22,74. Conclusiones: Los programas de prevención del tabaquismo en escolares generan un beneficio para la sociedad muy superior a sus costes. Los resultados justifican la aplicación universal de este tipo de programas.Objective: To analyze the efficiency of a school-based smoking prevention program in Barcelona (PASE.bcn program). Methods: A cost-benefit analysis was performed. As costs we included those corresponding to the design and implementation of the program. As benefits we considered healthcare costs and the productivity losses avoided. This study was conducted from a societal perspective, and the estimations of costs and benefits related to 2005. Results: Assuming an effectiveness of 1%, the PASE.bcn program would achieve a total benefit of 1,558,311.46 €. The healthcare benefits per prevented smoker were 1997.57 €, and the indirect benefits per prevented smoker were 21,260.80 €. Given the total cost of the school-based program (68,526.03 €), the cost-benefit ratio was 22.74. Conclusions: From a societal perspective, the benefits of school-based tobacco prevention programs, in terms of healthcare costs and productivity losses avoided, are far greater than the costs. These results support universal application of this type of intervention.

Objetivo: Analizar el volumen y la calidad de las evaluaciones económicas de intervenciones preventivas realizadas en España hasta septiembre de 2005, extrayendo conclusiones sobre temáticas y metodologías que se espera orienten futuras líneas de investigación. Métodos: Se ha realizado una revisión sistemática de la evidencia científica. Tras definir los criterios de inclusión, la búsqueda ha procedido en motores especializados (Pubmed, NHS EED, DARE, HTA, HRSPROJ, IME, EMBASE) y, manualmente, en revistas y organismos de salud pública. Se extrajo un conjunto de características predefinidas de los artículos seleccionados, y se evaluaron mediante análisis univariantes y bivariantes. Resultados: Un total de 49 artículos cumplieron los criterios de inclusión, 40 de los cuales pudieron ser revisados. La técnica más utilizada ha sido el análisis coste-efectividad (en el 60% de los artículos); 28 estudios (el 70%) se centran en campañas de inmunización. La calidad de las publicaciones ha aumentado, de una puntuación media de 4,21 (1985-1995) a 6,38 (1995-2004), pero se han detectado áreas metodológicas que necesitan una mejora. Un 72,5% de los artículos favorece la expansión del programa analizado o el mantenimiento de su carácter universal. Conclusiones: La investigación española ha de hacer esfuerzos por mejorar la cantidad y la calidad de sus publicaciones en salud pública. Para ello, se sugieren 3 estrategias básicas: a) evaluación de los programas preventivos nacionales en vigor y diseminación de los resultados; b) estrategias para la internacionalización de las publicaciones; c) adhesión a las guías de evaluación económica disponibles.Objective: To examine the quantity and quality of economic evaluations analyzing preventive interventions in Spain to September 2005, with the further goal of extracting conclusions for further research and the design of future programs. Methods: We performed a systematic review of the evidence. First, we defined the criteria for including studies in our review. Second, a search was conducted of specialized search engines (Pubmed, NHS EED, DARE, HTA, HRSPROJ, IME, EMBASE) and a manual search was performed of journals and the web sites of Spanish public health organizations. In a third phase, the characteristics relevant to our analysis were extracted from the selected articles. Lastly, the characteristics collected were analyzed through uni- and bivariate analyses. Results: Forty-nine articles were found that complied with the inclusion criteria, of which 40 were reviewed. The technique most extensively used was cost-effectiveness analysis (60% of all articles). Twenty-eight evaluations (70%) focused on immunization campaigns. The quality of publications increased over time, from an average score of 4.21 (1985-1995) to 6.38 (1995-2004), although several methodological areas still require improvement. Lastly, 72.5% of the studies supported the universal use or expansion of the policy analyzed. Conclusions: The Spanish research community should increase efforts to improve the quantity and quality of economic evaluations in preventive health. Three basic strategies are suggested: a) evaluation of the preventive programs currently in place in Spain and dissemination of the results; b) efforts to publish and index articles in international scientific journals; and c) adherence to international economic evaluation guidelines and manuals.

Objetivos: Estimar los pesos de calidad de vida para España, para los años 1987, 1993 y 2001, a partir del estado de salud autopercibido declarado en la Encuesta Nacional de Salud. Material y métodos: Los pesos de calidad se han estimado mediante un modelo probit ordenado en el que el estado de salud autopercibido se relacionaba con la presencia de enfermedades crónicas, características demográficas y un error aleatorio, y normalizado a partir de una transformación de los estimadores obtenidos en el modelo. Resultados: La calidad de vida asociada con las enfermedades crónicas difiere según cuáles sean éstas. Las dolencias, las limitaciones y las enfermedades en los últimos 12 meses reducen más la calidad de vida que las enfermedades crónicas. La calidad de vida disminuye a medida que aumenta la edad y se incrementa a medida que aumenta el nivel de estudios. Para una misma enfermedad, y tras ajustar por edad, sexo y nivel de estudios, los pesos de calidad de vida en los años 1993 y 2001 son mayores que en el año 1987. Conclusiones: La metodología propuesta permite calcular los pesos de calidad de vida a partir de los datos de las encuestas de salud, con una aplicación directa en la evaluación económica, el análisis de las desigualdades socioeconómicas en el estado de salud de las poblaciones y el cálculo del capital de salud.Objectives: To estimate quality of life weights in Spain for 1987, 1993 and 2001, based on self-assessed health status reported in the National Health Survey. Material and methods: Quality of life weights were estimated using an ordered probit model. In this model, self-assessed health status was related to the presence of chronic diseases, demographic characteristics, and a random error. Quality of life weights were derived by normalizing the regressors obtained. Results: Quality of life values related to chronic diseases varied depending on the diseases. Pain, limitations, and diseases in the previous 12 months had a greater negative impact on quality of life than did chronic diseases. Quality of life decreased as age increased, and increased as educational level increased. For the same disease and adjusted for age, sex, and educational level, quality of life weights were greater for 1993 and 2001 than for 1987. Conclusions: The proposed methodology allows quality of life weights to be calculated from health survey data, which has direct application in economic assessment, analysis of socioeconomic health inequalities, and health capital estimation.

Background: The objective of performance assessment is to provide governments and populations with appropriate information about the state of their health care system. The objective of this paper is to present the most recent developments in performance assessment and their application in urban contexts. Methods: Literature review in PubMed (1970-2004). We identified additional papers and grey literature from retrieved references. Results: Performance assessment initiatives were identified in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. The World Health Report 2000 is one of the best known examples of a transnational approach to performance assessment. Conclusion: The best developed initiatives to date are those that define precise categories, criteria and indicators with which to analyse and assess health care systems, based on a solid conceptual framework. Performance assessment fits perfectly in urban contexts, as it is a useful tool for designing and monitoring policies, assessing the quality of the services provided, and measuring the health status of city dwellers. Barcelona and Montreal are currently collaborating together on a project to assess the performance assessment of their respective health care services.Objetivos: El objetivo de la evaluación del desempeño es dar información apropiada a los gobiernos y las poblaciones sobre el funcionamiento de su sistema sanitario. El objetivo de este artículo es presentar los desarrollos más recientes en la medida del desempeño y su aplicación en contextos urbanos. Métodos: Revisión de la bibliografía en PubMed (1970-2004). Se identificaron artículos adicionales y bibliografía gris y de las referencias de los artículos seleccionados. Resultados: Se identificaron iniciativas de medida del desempeño en Australia, Canadá, Reino Unido y Nueva Zelanda. La iniciativa transnacional del Informe sobre la salud en el mundo 2000 de la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) es una de las más conocidas. Conclusiones: Las iniciativas más desarrolladas en la actualidad son las que definen categorías, criterios e indicadores para analizar y evaluar los sistemas sanitarios, basándose en un marco conceptual sólido. La medida del desempeño encaja perfectamente en los contextos urbanos, ya que es una herramienta útil para diseñar y hacer un seguimiento del nivel de consecución de las políticas en marcha, medir la calidad de los servicios disponibles y el estado de salud de los habitantes de una población. Barcelona y Montreal están trabajando en un proyecto de colaboración para la evaluación del desempeño de sus servicios sanitarios.

Introducción: La evaluación de tecnologías sanitarias (ETS) es un instrumento basado en la evidencia científica para la toma de decisiones sobre la inclusión de avances tecnológicos en los sistemas sanitarios. Ahora bien, hay múltiples condicionantes y elementos, provenientes tanto de la propia ETS como de profesionales, políticos y de la sociedad, que influyen en que los resultados de la ETS se lleven a cabo. El objetivo de este artículo es describir los principales elementos que condicionan la aplicación de la ETS en la práctica y su uso en el ámbito clínico y en la política sanitaria. Métodos: Se ha realizado una búsqueda bibliográfica en la base de datos biomédica PubMed. Se revisaron las referencias seleccionadas, así como la bibliografía adicional y la literatura gris identificada a partir de las referencias, que trataba de temas relacionados con la práctica de la ETS. Los resultados se presentan de manera descriptiva, haciendo un análisis de los estudios agrupados por los distintos aspectos de la ETS. Resultados: Algunos elementos clave en los que hay posibilidades de mejora son la estandarización del proceso de evaluación, la descripción de la misión de la organización, la priorización de tecnologías a evaluar, la claridad en la presentación de los resultados, la inclusión de valores sociales y de coste-efectividad, y el aumento de la coordinación internacional. Conclusiones: Para muchos, la razón de ser de la ETS es su función explícita en la toma de decisiones, aunque esto no está exento de problemas. Todo parece indicar que el futuro inmediato de la ETS pasa por explicitar los procesos de evaluación y la clara inclusión de la ETS en la toma de decisiones, con todo lo que ello supone de priorización de tecnologías, establecimiento de límites en cuanto al consumo de recursos económicos y vinculación con los procesos políticos.Introduction: Health technology assessment (HTA) is a tool based on scientific evidence useful for making decisions about the introduction of technological advances in healthcare systems. However, there are multiple elements that influence the actual use of the results of HTA. These elements are related both to the characteristics of HTA and to the stakeholders involved -health professionals, politicians, and society. The aim of this article was to describe the main elements that influence the applicability of HTA in practice, as well as the use of HTA in clinical practice and health policy. Methods: A literature search was performed in PubMed. The references retrieved, as well as additional bibliography and gray literature dealing with different aspects of HTA practice identified from the references retrieved, were reviewed. The results are presented descriptively, with analysis of the studies grouped according to the various HTA-related topics. Results: Key elements that could be improved are standardization of the evaluation process, description of the organization's mission, prioritization of the technologies to be assessed, the clarity of the presentation of results, inclusion of values other than scientific evidence, such as social and cost-effectiveness values, and increased international coordination. Conclusions: For many people, the rationale for HTA is its explicit role in decision making, despite its problems. The immediate future of HTA would seem to include making the assessment process explicit, and the inclusion of HTA in decision making. This entails prioritization of technologies, setting limits on resource allocation and interrelation with political processes.

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to estimate healthcare resource utilization, work absenteeism and cost per patient with pandemic influenza (H1N1)2009, from its beginning to March 2010, in Spain. We also estimated the economic impact on healthcare services.Methods and findingsLongitudinal, descriptive, multicenter study of in- and outpatients with confirmed diagnosis of influenza A (H1N1) in Spain. Temporal distribution of cases was comparable to that in Spain. Information of healthcare and social resources used from one week before admission (inpatient) or index-medical visit (outpatient) until recovery was gathered. Unit cost was imputed to utilization frequency for the monetary valuation of use. Mean cost per patient was calculated. A sensitivity analysis was conducted, and variables correlated with cost per patient were identified. Economic impact on the healthcare system was estimated using healthcare costs per patient and both, the reported number of confirmed and clinical cases in Spain. 172 inpatients and 224 outpatients were included. Less than 10% were over 65 years old and more than 50% had previous comorbidities. 12.8% of inpatients were admitted to the Intensive Care Unit. Mean length of hospital stay of patients not requiring critical care was 5 days (SD = 4.4). All working-inpatients and 91.7% working-outpatients went on sick leave. On average, work absenteeism was 30.5 days (SD = 20.7) for the first ones and 9 days (SD = 6.3) for the latest. Caregivers of 21.7% of inpatients and 8.5% of outpatients also had work absenteeism during 10.7 and 4.1 days on average respectively. Mean cost was €6,236/inpatient (CI95% = 1,384-14,623) and €940/outpatient (CI95% = 66-3,064). The healthcare economic burden of patients with confirmed influenza was €144,773,577 (IC95% 13,753,043-383,467,535). More than 86% of expenditures were a result of outpatients' utilization.ConclusionCost per H1N1-patient did not defer much from seasonal influenza estimates. Hospitalizations and work absenteeism represented the highest cost per patient.

BackgroundCost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) has been promoted as an important research methodology for determining the efficiency of healthcare technology and guiding medical decision-making. Our aim was to characterize the collaborative patterns of CEA conducted over the past two decades in Spain.Methods and findingsA systematic analysis was carried out with the information obtained through an updated comprehensive literature review and from reports of health technology assessment agencies. We identified CEAs with outcomes expressed as a time-based summary measure of population health (e.g. quality-adjusted life-years or disability-adjusted life-years), conducted in Spain and published between 1989 and 2011. Networks of coauthorship and institutional collaboration were produced using PAJEK software. One-hundred and thirty-one papers were analyzed, in which 526 authors and 230 institutions participated. The overall signatures per paper index was 5.4. Six major groups (one with 14 members, three with 7 members and two with 6 members) were identified. The most prolific authors were generally affiliated with the private-for-profit sector (e.g. consulting firms and the pharmaceutical industry). The private-for-profit sector maintains profuse collaborative networks including public hospitals and academia. Collaboration within the public sector (e.g. healthcare administration and primary care) was weak and fragmented.ConclusionsThis empirical analysis reflects critical practices among collaborative networks that contributed substantially to the production of CEA, raises challenges for redesigning future policies and provides a framework for similar analyses in other regions.