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We revise the taxonomy of the Sylvia cantillans complex, a group of phenotypically distinct warblers with mainly parapatric distributions around a large part of the Mediterranean basin. We redefine the species limits using a combination of mitochondrial and nuclear markers and we objectively link available names to the genetically defined lineages by genotyping the surviving type specimens. In addition, the study of archival documents clarifies the exact composition of type series and provides further evidence for the identification of lost types. These results support the recognition of three species-level taxa: Moltoni’s warbler, Sylvia subalpina (north-central Italy, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearics); the western subalpine warbler, S. iberiae (North Africa, Iberia, southern France and extreme north-west Italy); and the eastern subalpine warbler, S. cantillans, with subspecies S. cantillans cantillans (southern Italy, Sicily) and S. cantillans albistriata (Balkans, Greece, western Turkey). We revise the taxonomy of the Sylvia cantillans complex, a group of phenotypically distinct warblers with mainly parapatric distributions around a large part of the Mediterranean basin. We redefine the species limits using a combination of mitochondrial and nuclear markers and we objectively link available names to the genetically defined lineages by genotyping the surviving type specimens. In addition, the study of archival documents clarifies the exact composition of type series and provides further evidence for the identification of lost types. These results support the recognition of three species-level taxa: Moltoni’s warbler, Sylvia subalpina (north-central Italy, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearics); the western subalpine warbler, S. iberiae (North Africa, Iberia, southern France and extreme northwest Italy); and the eastern subalpine warbler, S. cantillans, with subspecies S. cantillans cantillans (southern Italy, Sicily) and S. cantillans albistriata (Balkans, Greece, western Turkey).

Connectivity between golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) populations is poorly understood. Field studies exploring natal dispersal suggest that this raptor is a philopatric species, but with the ability to roam far. However, little is known about the population structure of the species in Europe. Our study is based on 14 microsatellite loci and is complemented by new and previously published mitochondrial control region DNA data. The present dataset includes 121 eagles from Scotland, Norway, Finland, Estonia, the Mediterranean and Alpine regions. Our sampling focused on the Alpine and Mediterranean populations because both mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages found in golden eagles, the Holarctic and the Mediterranean, are known to co-occur there. Cluster analyses of nuclear DNA support a shallow split into northern and southern populations in Europe, similar to the distribution of the two mtDNA lineages, with the Holarctic lineage occurring in the north and the Mediterranean lineage predominating in the south. Additionally, Scotland shows significant differentiation and low relative migration levels that indicate isolation from the mainland populations. Alpine and Mediterranean golden eagles do not show nuclear structure corresponding to divergent mtDNA lineages. This indicates that the presence of northern Holarctic mitochondrial haplotypes in the Alps and the Mediterranean is attributable to past admixture rather than recent long-distance dispersal.

Urbanisation is proceeding at an alarming rate which forces wildlife to either retreat from urban areas or cope with novel stressors linked to human presence and activities. For example, urban stressors like anthropogenic noise, artificial light at night and chemical pollution can have severe impacts on the physiology of wildlife (and humans), in particular the immune system and antioxidant defences. These physiological systems are important to combat and reduce the severity of parasitic infections, which are common among wild animals. One question that then arises is whether urban-dwelling animals, whose immune and antioxidant system are already challenged by the urban stressors, are more susceptible to parasitic infections. To assess this, we studied nestlings of Eurasian kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) in Vienna, Austria, during 2015 and 2017. We measured biomarkers of innate immune function, oxidative stress and body mass index and ectoparasite infection intensity in 143 nestlings (from 56 nests) along an urban gradient. Nestlings in more urbanised areas had overall fewer ectoparasites, lower haemolysis (complement activity) and lower body mass index compared to nestlings in less urbanised areas. None of the other immune or oxidative stress markers were associated with the urban gradient. Despite some non-significant results, our data still suggest that kestrel nestlings experience some level of reduced physiological health, perhaps as a consequence of exposure to more urban stressors or altered prey availability in inner-city districts even though they had an overall lower ectoparasite burden in these heavily urbanised areas. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00114-021-01745-x.

The ~1.97 million egg sets (~5 million eggs) housed in museums have not been used in proportion to their availability. We highlight the wide variety of scientific disciplines that have used egg collections and the geographic locations and sizes of these collections, to increase awareness of the importance of egg collections, improve their visibility to the scientific community, and suggest that they offer a wealth of data covering large spatial scales and long time series for broad investigations into avian biology. We provide a brief history of egg collections and an updated list of museums/institutions with egg collections worldwide. We also review the limitations, challenges, and management of egg collections, and summarize recent literature based on historical and recent museum egg materials.

We re-examined the putative type specimen of Society Kingfisher Todiramphus veneratus (J. F. Gmelin, 1788) in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien (NMW 50.633) and conclude based on plumage that it represents the taxon from Moorea, T. veneratus youngi Sharpe, 1892, rather than nominate T. veneratus veneratus from Tahiti. X-rays reveal that it was prepared using techniques common in the late 18th century, and that its preparation style matches that of other specimens collected during Cook’s three voyages. NMW 50.633 has been assumed to be the one, or one of a number of, specimen(s) used by Latham to describe and illustrate his ‘Venerated Kingfisher’ (present-day Society Kingfisher), which was the basis of the later valid introduction of the name Alcedo venerata by J. F. Gmelin. However, whereas the description and an unpublished illustration in Latham’s archives agree closely with veneratus from Tahiti, NMW 50.633 appears to represent Moorea youngi. While this finding does not compromise the definition of Society Kingfisher veneratus, it leaves it without a safely identified type specimen. We also examined a Moorea specimen in the National Museums Liverpool (LIVCM D2366) that is almost as old as NMW 50.633, but which X-rays suggest had a different origin than NMW 50.633.

Summary Human-induced environmental change and habitat fragmentation pose major threats to biodiversity and require active conservation efforts to mitigate their consequences. Genetic rescue through translocation and the introduction of variation into imperiled populations has been argued as a powerful means to preserve, or even increase, the genetic diversity and evolutionary potential of endangered species [1, 2, 3, 4]. However, factors such as outbreeding depression [5, 6] and a reduction in available genetic diversity render the success of such approaches uncertain. An improved evaluation of the consequence of genetic restoration requires knowledge of temporal changes to genetic diversity before and after the advent of management programs. To provide such information, a growing number of studies have included small numbers of genomic loci extracted from historic and even ancient specimens [7, 8]. We extend this approach to its natural conclusion, by characterizing the complete genomic sequences of modern and historic population samples of the crested ibis (Nipponia nippon), an endangered bird that is perhaps the most successful example of how conservation effort has brought a species back from the brink of extinction. Though its once tiny population has today recovered to >2,000 individuals [9], this process was accompanied by almost half of ancestral loss of genetic variation and high deleterious mutation load. We furthermore show how genetic drift coupled to inbreeding following the population bottleneck has largely purged the ancient polymorphisms from the current population. In conclusion, we demonstrate the unique promise of exploiting genomic information held within museum samples for conservation and ecological research., Highlights • Recent population decline of crested ibis in 10 kya was likely shaped by human activity • Modern group has lost almost half of genetic variations in pre-bottleneck ancestors • Modern group suffers from a high inbreeding coefficient and deleterious mutation load • Ancestral balancing selection is outweighed by genetic drift in the modern group, Feng et al. use whole-genome sequencing of contemporary and historic crested ibis, an iconic endangered bird species, to explore how their genetic diversity has changed through time. Their analyses reveal the roles of genetic drift and intensive inbreeding on the loss of genetic diversity in today’s population.

Capsule: Local weather conditions, but not a city-associated diet composition, influence the breeding performance of urban Eurasian Kestrels Falco tinnunculus.Aims: We aim to explore the impact of diet composition, specifically a high proportion of avian prey, on the breeding performance of urban Eurasian Kestrels under different weather conditions.Methods: The Eurasian Kestrel is known to exploit cities and occurs in the study area of Vienna, Austria (415 km2) at high breeding densities of 89–122 pairs/100 km2. Unlike their rural conspecifics which specialize in voles, urban Kestrels are generalists, preying on passerines and mammals, but also reptiles and insects. We explore this alternative diet through pellet analyses along an urbanization gradient over a 5-year period and link diet to reproductive performance, taking local weather conditions into account.Results: Our results showed that weather had a greater influence on breeding performance than did diet. Warm and dry weather during the arri...

The Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is among the most widespread of the birds of prey, covering basically the whole Palaearctic from Europe and North Africa through Asia and Japan, to the North American continent. Only few studies have addressed the species’ genetic structure and the consequences of its demographic history so far, and none of them has covered larger areas of the distribution range. Our present study aims at closing this gap. Based on 283 samples (mostly feathers collected in the field or from museum collections) across the species’ distribution, but with a focus on Europe, we uncover the phylogeography of the Golden eagle. Results imply a phylogeographic split between mainly Northern Europe, Continental Asia, Japan and North America on the one hand and Central–Southern Europe on the other. The observed pattern is likely to be caused by the Last Ice Age, when the population survived in two reproductively isolated glacial refugia. Repopulation of Northern Europe occurred from a presumed Asian refugium, whereas the Alpine range was probably repopulated from a refugium in the Mediterranean region. In Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean and Alpine region we find a co-occurrence of both lineages that heavily influences the local genetic diversity. This pattern is unlike that in most other large raptors in which usually a western and an eastern Eurasian lineage have been recovered.

As the world experiences rapid urban expansion, natural landscapes are being transformed into cities at an alarming rate. Consequently, urbanization is identified as one of the biggest environmental challenges of our time, yet we lack a clear understanding of how urbanization affects free-living organisms. Urbanization leads to habitat fragmentation and increased impervious surfaces affecting for example availability and quality of food. Urbanization is also associated with increased pollution levels that can affect organisms directly, via ecophysiological constraints and indirectly by disrupting trophic interactions in multi-species networks. Birds are highly mobile, while an individual is not necessarily exposed to urban stressors around the clock, but nestlings of altricial birds are. Such a city-dwelling species with a long nestling phase is the Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in Vienna, Austria, which forage on a diverse diet differing in composition from rural habitats. Furthermore, prey items vary in nutritional value and contents of micronutrients like carotenoids, which might impact the nestlings' health. Carotenoids are pigments that are incorporated into integument tissues but also have antioxidant and immunostimulatory capacity, resulting in a trade-off between these functions. In nestlings these pigments function in parent-offspring communication or sibling competition by advertising an individual's physical or physiological condition. Anthropogenic disturbance and pollutants could have disruptive effects on the coloration of these traits. In this study, we measured carotenoid based coloration and other indicators of individual health (body condition and susceptibility to the ectoparasite Carnus hemapterus) of 154 nestling kestrels (n = 91 nests) along an urban gradient from 2010 to 2015. We found skin yellowness of nestlings from nest-sites in the city-center to be least pronounced. This result might indicate that inner-city nestlings are strongly affected by urban stressors and depleted their stores of dietary carotenoids for health-related functions rather than coloration. In addition, skin yellowness intensified with age and was stronger pronounced in earlier nests. Since the immune system of nestlings is still developing, younger chicks might need more antioxidants to combat environmental stress. Additionally, parasite infection intensity was highest in nestlings with less intense skin yellowness (paler or less yellow pigmented integuments) and in earlier nests of the season. In combination with results from previous studies, our findings provide further support for the low quality of the inner-city habitat, both in terms of productivity and individual health.

The urban space is a permanently changing ecosystem, suffering from decreasing biodiversity, but also providing new anthropogenic habitats for some adaptable species. The Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is such an adaptable species, whose dense urban populations are ethologically different from rural populations in Europe. Several studies have indicated that urban kestrels increasingly prey on birds; this study even indicated avian prey as the main prey category in the inner-city habitat. We analyzed the selection of habitat and building structure parameters while controlling for differences in their availability in Vienna, Austria, a city of 1.7 million inhabitants. We then connected the nest-site selection of urban kestrels to their diet choice and annual reproduction rate. Our results indicated a trade-off between higher nest-site availability in the center and longer distances to larger open green space as optimal foraging ground. Between 2010 and 2012, a preference for breeding in close vicinity to green backyards was linked to earlier clutch dates, higher hatching rates and larger fledged brood sizes, but the overall productivity per nest still remained low in the center compared to the suburban area. In a survey of avian prey species, we found comparable abundances of prey-sized bird species in green backyards, parks and surrounding suburban areas. We thus hypothesize that kestrels use the immediate nest-surroundings to hunt, but are not as efficient in hunting avian prey as they are in hunting voles. Changes in modern city architecture and renovation of historical buildings pose conservation related threats to urban predators and prey.

The selection of a suitable nest-site is critical for successful reproduction. Species' preferences for nest-sites have presumably evolved in relation to local habitat resources and/or interactions with other species. The importance of these two components in the nest-site selection of the Eurasian Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus was assessed in two study areas in eastern Austria. There was almost no difference in macro- and micro-habitat features between nest-sites and random plots, suggesting that Honey Buzzards did not base their choice of nest-site on habitat characteristics. However, nests were placed significantly further from nests of Northern Goshawk Accipiter gentilis than would be expected if nest-sites had been chosen at random. Furthermore, in one study area Honey Buzzards appeared to favour areas close to human settlements, perhaps indicating a mechanism to avoid Goshawks, which tend to avoid the proximity of humans. No habitat variable was significantly associated with the loss of Honey Buzzard young, but predation was higher in territories closer to breeding pairs of Goshawks at both study sites. Although Honey Buzzards are restricted to nesting in forests, their choice of nest-site therefore appears to be largely dictated by the distribution of predators. Studies of habitat association may yield misleading results if the effects of predation risk on distribution are not considered.

The phylogenetic position of the extinct Mascarene Parrot Mascarinus mascarin from La Reunion has been unresolved for centuries. A recent molecular study unexpectedly placed M. mascarin within the clade of phenotypically very different Vasa parrots Coracopsis. Based on DNA extracted from the only other preserved Mascarinus specimen, we show that the previously obtained cytb sequence is probably an artificial composite of partial sequences from two other parrot species and that M. mascarin is indeed a part of the Psittacula diversification, placed close to P. eupatria and P. wardi.

The type locality of Pterocles exustus Temminck, 1825, is ‘West coast of Africa, Egypt and Nubia’. This is problematic because it includes the type locality of Pterocles exustus floweri (Nicoll, 1921), which is Fayum, Egypt. In the interest of clarification and to preserve stability of nomenclature, a non-Egyptian specimen from the type series of Pterocles exustus is designated as lectotype of the taxon, and the type locality is restricted to Senegal.

The first comprehensive overview of intra- and interspecific variation within the genus Corvus as well as first insights into the phylogenetic relationships of its species is presented. DNA sequences of the mitochondrial control region were obtained from 34 of the 40 described species (including subspecies: 56 taxa). As the study was based mainly on museum material, several specimens did not yield the full length marker sequence. In these cases, only a short section of the control region could be analysed. Nevertheless, even these individuals could be assigned tentatively to clades established on the full length marker sequence. Inclusion of sequences of other corvid genera as available in GenBank clearly confirmed the monophyly of the genus Corvus. Within the Corvus clade several distinct subclades can be distinguished. Some represent lineages of single species or species pairs while other clades are composed of many species. In general, the composition of the clades reflects geographical contiguousness and confirms earlier assumptions of a Palearctic origin of the genus Corvus with several independent colonizations of the Nearctic and the Aethiopis. The Australasian radiation seems to be derived from a single lineage. The distribution of plumage colour in the phylogenetic tree indicates that the pale markings evolved several times independently. The white ⁄ grey plumage colour pattern – which is found also in other genera of the family Corvidae, for example, in Pica – occurs already in the species pair representing the first split within the genus Corvus (Corvus monedula, Corvus dauuricus). Thus, reversal to full black colour seems to have occurred as well. The use of colour traits as a phylogenetic marker within Corvus should be considered with severe caution.

Buteonine hawks represent one of the most diverse groups in the Accipitridae, with 58 species distributed in a variety of habitats on almost all continents. Variations in migratory behavior, remarkable dispersal capability, and unusual diversity in Central and South America make buteonine hawks an excellent model for studies in avian evolution. To evaluate the history of their global radiation, we used an integrative approach that coupled estimation of the phylogeny using a large sequence database (based on 6411 bp of mitochondrial markers and one nuclear intron from 54 species), divergence time estimates, and ancestral state reconstructions. Our findings suggest that Neotropical buteonines resulted from a long evolutionary process that began in the Miocene and extended to the Pleistocene. Colonization of the Nearctic, and eventually the Old World, occurred from South America, promoted by the evolution of seasonal movements and development of land bridges. Migratory behavior evolved several times and may have contributed not only to colonization of the Holarctic, but also derivation of insular species. In the Neotropics, diversification of the buteonines included four disjunction events across the Andes. Adaptation of monophyletic taxa to wet environments occurred more than once, and some relationships indicate an evolutionary connection among mangroves, coastal and várzea environments. On the other hand, groups occupying the same biome, forest, or open vegetation habitats are not monophyletic. Refuges or sea-level changes or a combination of both was responsible for recent speciation in Amazonian taxa. In view of the lack of concordance between phylogeny and classification, we propose numerous taxonomic changes.

Sequences of the mitochondrial genome were employed to study the phylogenetic relationships of the Palearctic buzzards (genus Buteo). In a first approach a 2.5 kb PCR fragment comprising the section between ND6 and 12s genes was isolated from Buteo buteo hureo, cloned and sequenced. The gene order corresponds to the novel arrangement described for Folco peregrinrrs by Mindell et al. (1998). The fragment includes a non coding section between the /RNA G '" and /RNAPh' genes consisting of a 338 bp nonrepetitive section followed by a cluster of 23 tandem repeats with a unit length of 48 bp. Since this noncoding section seems to be the remnant of an ancestral duplicated control region, it was named pseudo-control region (YCR). For the phylogenetic investigation a highly variable 205 bp subsection of the YCR was analysed from 31 specimens comprising the species Buteo buteo, Burro rufinus, Buteo oreopllilus, Buteo llemilosius, and Buteo lrigopus. Comparison of the 31 VCR sequences revealed 18 different haplotypes, which can be divided into six distinct groups. The haplotypes of B. liemilosius and B. Iagopus are clearly separated, the same is true for the haplotypes of the subspecies B. b. japonicus. Although the haplotypes of B. rufinus are found in a separate clade (with two clusters), this clade contains also four specimens of B. buteo and B. oreophilus. The remaining cluster contains taxa from the buteo and ~ulpinus groups as well as three specimens of B. o. trizonatus. According to our data the YCR appears as an appropriate marker sequence for differentiation at the species level. Within the B. buteolB. rufinuslB. oreophil~rs complex the status of B. rufinus, and perhaps B. b. joponicus, as a separate species is underlined. In contrast, the species status of B. oreophilus seems debatable. No unambiguous genetic differentiation was found among the subspecies, with the exception of B. b.,jripo~~icus.

The phylogenetic relationships within the New and Old World hawk-eagle assemblage (genus Spizaetus; Aves: Accipitridae) were studied using mitochondrial DNA sequences (cytochrome b, control region). Eighty-four specimens representing all Spizaetus species and almost all currently distinguished subspecies as well as 11 other booted and non-booted eagle genera from the Neotropics, Africa, Eurasia, South Asia and Australasia (Oroaetus, Harpia, Morphnus, Lophaetus, Stephanoaetus, Hieraaetus, Aquila, Ictinaetus, Spilornis, Pithecophaga, Harpyopsis) were investigated. Although the basal branching could not be resolved, our investigations clearly indicate that hawk-eagles represent a paraphyletic assemblage and thus their external similarities have to be ascribed to convergent evolution. The New World taxa of Spizaetus cluster together, but the South American species Oroaetus isidori appears embedded within this clade. The taxa from Southeast to East Asia form a clearly separated monophyletic group. It is further divided into two subgroups, which are also characterized by distinct juvenile plumage patterns. Spizaetus africanus, the only African representative of the genus, is found in a mixed cluster consisting of members of the genera Aquila and Hieraaetus. These findings are in accordance with previous studies of other authors based on various molecular markers and different sets of taxa, but disagree with current taxonomy. Therefore, we suggest assigning the species of the genus Spizaetus to three different genera: (1) Spizaetus (including Oroaetus isidori) in Central and South America and (2) Nisaetus for the Southeast to East Asian group. (3) The African taxon (Spizaetus africanus) is discussed to be included into the genus Aquila. Furthermore, we propose to use the former genus name Lophotriorchis Sharpe, 1874, for the monotypic species Hieraaetus kienerii, which has an isolated phylogenetic position.

Microsatellite as well as sequence analysis of the mitochondrial control region were applied to infer phylogeography and population genetic structure of the saker falcon (Falco cherrug). Furthermore, we compared the patterns of mitochondrial haplotypes with the variation of microsatellite alleles among the species of the hierofalcon complex (F. cherrug, Falco rusticolus, Falco biarmicus, Falco jugger) to test hypotheses on population history. Historical samples from museum specimens of F. cherrug were analysed together with samples from contemporary populations to investigate possible influences of hybrid falcons escaped from falconry on the genetic composition. In the mitochondrial DNA analysis, none of the four species represents a monophyletic group. Moreover, there are no clearly defined groups of haplotypes corresponding to taxonomic entities. In the microsatellite analysis most of the variation is shared between species and no clear differentiation by private alleles is found. Yet, with a Bayesian clustering method based on allele frequencies, a differentiation of F. cherrug, F. rusticolus and two geographic groups of F. biarmicus was detected. Results from both nuclear and mitochondrial markers are compatible with the previously postulated 'Out of Africa' hypothesis assuming an African origin of the hierofalcons. From an ancestral African population, F. cherrug, F. rusticolus and F. jugger split off in separate waves of immigration into Eurasia and South Asia. A combination of evolutionary processes, including incomplete lineage sorting as well as hybridization, may be responsible for the currently observed genetic patterns in hierofalcons.

Known with certainty solely from a unique male specimen collected in central Brazil in the first quarter of the 19th century, the Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct) Hooded Seedeater Sporophila melanops has been one of the great enigmas of Neotropical ornithology, arguably the only one of a host of long-lost species from Brazil to remain obstinately undiscovered. We reanalysed the morphology of the type specimen, as well as a female specimen postulated to represent the same taxon, and sequenced mitochondrial DNA (COI and Cyt-b) from both individuals. Furthermore, we visited the type locality, at the border between Goiás and Mato Grosso, and its environs on multiple occasions at different seasons, searching for birds with similar morphology to the type, without success. Novel genetic and morphological evidence clearly demonstrates that the type of S. melanops is not closely related to Yellow-bellied Seedeater S. nigricollis, as has been frequently postulated in the literature, but is in fact a representative of one of the so-called capuchinos, a clade of attractively plumaged seedeaters that breed mostly in the Southern Cone of South America. Our morphological analysis indicates that S. melanops has a hitherto unreported dark-coffee throat and that it is probably a Dark-throated Seedeater S. ruficollis collected within its wintering range, acquiring breeding plumage and showing melanism on the cap feathers. Alternatively, it may be a melanistic-capped individual of a local population of seedeaters known to breed in the Esteros del Iberá, Corrientes, Argentina, to which the name S. ruficollis might be applicable, whilst the name S. plumbeiceps might be available for what is currently known as S. ruficollis. A hybrid origin for S. melanops cannot be ruled out from the available data, but seems unlikely. The purported female specimen of S. melanops pertains either to S. nigricollis or to Double-collared Seedeater S. caerulescens based on genetic and morphological data, and thus cannot be a female of S. melanops. We conclude that Sporophila melanops is not typical of any natural population of seedeaters, appears to have been collected far from its breeding grounds while overwintering in central Brazil, and should not be afforded any conservation status. Fil: Areta, Juan Ignacio. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Salta. Instituto de Bio y Geociencias del NOA. Universidad Nacional de Salta. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales. Museo de Ciencias Naturales. Instituto de Bio y Geociencias del NOA; Argentina Fil: Piacentini, Vítor de Q. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Haring, Elisabeth. Universidad de Viena; Austria Fil: Gamauf, Anita. Universidad de Viena; Austria Fil: Silveira, Luís Fábio. Universidad de Viena; Austria Fil: Machado, Erika. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Kirwan, Guy M.. The Field Museum; Estados Unidos

The phylogeographic history of the lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus) and the phylogenetic relationships among hierofalcons (F. biarmicus, Falco cherrug, Falco jugger and Falco rusticolus) were investigated using mitochondrial (mt) DNA sequences. Of the two non-coding mt sections tested, the control region (CR) appeared more suitable as phylogenetic marker sequence compared with the pseudo control region (WCR). For the comprehensive analysis samples from a broad geographic range representing all four hierofalcon species and their currently recognized subspecies were included. Moreover, samples of Falco mexicanus were analysed to elucidate its phylogenetic relationships to the hierofalcons. The sequence data indicate that this species is more closely related to Falco peregrinus than to the hierofalcons. In the DNA-based trees and in the maximum parsimony network all hierofalcons appear closely related and none of the species represents a monophyletic group. The close relationships among haplotypes suggest that the hierofalcon complex is an assemblage of morphospecies not yet differentiated in the genetic markers used in the present study and that the radiation of the four hierofalcon species took place rather recently. Based on the high intraspecific diversity found within F. biarmicus we assume an African origin of the hierofalcon complex. The observed pattern of haplotype distribution in the extant species may be due to incomplete lineage sorting of ancestral polymorphisms, and interspecific gene flow through hybridization.

The Okinawa woodpecker Sapheopipo noguchii is the rarest extant woodpecker species. The monotypic genus Sapheopipo was considered to be a representative of an old lineage of woodpeckers that led to the Eurasian genera Picus and the Blythipicus–Gecinulus species. This view, based on similarities in color patterns, external morphology and foraging behavior, has been adopted in all major accounts of the family. The alternative view, that this woodpecker may be related to the widespread white-backed woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos, which evolved distinctive subspecies on other East Asian islands, has not been generally accepted. We analyzed partial sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) gene to test these hypotheses. The data suggest that the Okinawa woodpecker is a member of the genus Dendrocopos, with white-backed woodpecker and great spotted woodpecker D. major as close relatives. Color patterns support the genetic results and indicate a closer relationship with the white-backed woodpecker. Consequently, the correct taxonomic designation of the Okinawa woodpecker would be Dendrocopos noguchii (Seebohm in Ibis 5(5):173–182, 1887) in the tribe Campetherini rather than Picini.

A partial sequence of the cytb gene (382 bp) was amplified and sequenced from 35 individuals (mainlymuseum specimens) of the genus Pernis representing all valid taxa (10) and two taxa (P. p. gurneyi, P. p. japonicus) with questionable validityas well as representatives of the Old World Perninae, namely Henicopernis and Aviceda, to assess their relationships to the genus Pernis. Furthermore, Gypaetus barbatus, Neophron percnopterus, and Buteo buteo were included as outgroup taxa. In the trees derived from the sequence data, Aviceda represents the sister group of the genus Pernis. The genus Henicopernis and the Old World vultures Gypaetus andNeophron appear rather distantlyrelated to Pernis. Within the genus Pernis, two of the described species (Pernis apivorus, Pernis ptilorhyncus) form monophyletic groups, whereas the relationships of the two clades representing three subspecies of Pernis celebensis are still uncertain. Although this studyis based on comparativelyshort DNA-sections, the trees deduced from these sequences can be considered as a first approach for inferring the phylogenetic relationships of the genus Pernis and related genera and for addressing questions concerning the evolutionary history, biogeography, and systematics of this group.

DNA sequences of the mitochondrial nd6 gene and the non-repetitive part of the pseudo-control region (PsiCR) were isolated from 101 individuals to analyze the phylogenetic relationships among all buzzards of the genus Buteo and other buteonine genera. Comparisons of the two marker sequences indicate that the PsiCR evolved two times faster than the nd6 gene. The PsiCR proved to be an efficient, neutral genetic marker sequence for phylogenetic analyses at the intrageneric level, especially suitable for analyses based on old tissues, where only short fragments can be obtained. The molecular data set implies a neotropical origin of the genus Buteo. Monophyly of the genus Buteo as currently defined is contradicted due to the positions of Asturina nitida, Geranoaetus melanoleucus, Buteo magnirostris, and Buteo leucorrhous. These findings suggest several taxonomic consequences. A. nitida and G. melanoleucus should be included into the genus Buteo. Moreover, B. leucorrhous should be transferred into the genus Percnohierax (which clusters with Parabuteo), and B. magnirostris into the genus Rupornis. According to this classification of the genus Buteo, the basal lineage of the genus is formed by a clade containing Buteo polyosoma, Buteo poecilochrous, and Buteo melanoleucus. The "woodland buteos" form a paraphyletic assemblage with B. magnirostris as a clearly separated lineage basal to the genus Buteo.

We present a phylogeny of all booted eagles (38 extant and one extinct species) based on analysis of published sequences from seven loci. We find molecular support for five major clades within the booted eagles: Nisaetus (10 species), Spizaetus (4 species), Clanga (3 species), Hieraaetus (6 species) and Aquila (11 species), requiring generic changes for 14 taxa. Additionally, we recommend that the Long-crested Eagle (Lophaetus occipitalis) and the Black Eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis) remain in their monotypic genera, due to their distinctive morphology. We apply the recently resurrected genus Clanga for the spotted eagles (previously Aquila spp.) to resolve the paraphyly of the genus Aquila such that the clade including the Booted Eagle (H. pennatus), Little Eagle (H. morphnoides), Pygmy Eagle (H. weiskei), Ayres’s Eagle (H. ayresii) and Wahlberg’s Eagle (H. wahlbergi) can remain in the genus Hieraaetus. The Rufous-bellied Eagle should be retained in the genus Lophotriorchis. For consistency in English names, we recommend that the term “hawk-eagles” be used only for the species in the genera Nisaetus and Spizaetus. We suggest following new or modified English names: Cassin’s Eagle (Aquila africana), Bonaparte’s Eagle (A. spilogaster), Ayres’s Eagle (Hieraaetus ayresii), and Black-and-chestnut Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus isidori). Molecular phylogeny, morphology, Nisaetus, Spizaetus, Clanga, Hieraaetus, Aquila, Oroaetus, Spizastur, Lophotriorchis © 2017 Magnolia Press. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0

We sought to clarify relationships among morphometrics, behavior, and eco- logical variables for 21 species of raptors in the Philippines. Morphological space was de- fined by 42 external characters analyzed as shape variables with respect to body length (without tail). Seventeen variables were used to characterize habitat and five to characterize foraging behavior. Three PCA components accounted for 68% of the total variance in the habitat data and separated species living in dense forests from those using degraded habitats or coastal areas. Two PCA components explained 81% of the variance in hunting mode, with transitions from sit-and-wait to flap-gliding, and with contrasts between soaring and flap- gliding. Three PCA components accounted for 70.5% of the variance in morphological shape. The first component separated species with narrow wings and less-pronounced notches from species with broad, deeply notched wings. The second and third components were associ- ated with the contrast between pointed and rounded wings and prey-capture apparatus (feet, bill). Five morphological characters were highly correlated (R = 0.934) with the first principal component of the habitat data, indicating that species inhabiting forested habitats have square tails, rounded wings, and strong claws. Hunting mode and habitat also were closely related (R = 0.900). Soaring correlated well with the number of notched primaries, tail shape, and measures of the trophic apparatus, but poorly with wing loading and aspect ratio. Behavior, ecology, and morphology of this subset of raptors were closely interrelated. Among the Philippine raptors, species that inhabit rain forests are the most endangered, and we suggest that morphological constraints limit their use of secondary habitats. Received 21

Intraspecific genetic diversity and phylogeography of Corvus corone was investigated using the mitochondrial (mt) control region as a molecular marker. A split into two distinct mt lineages was observed. One represents individuals from a wide geographic range spanning from England to the Russian Far East (Kamchatka), while the other one was found in the Primorye and Khabarovsk regions (southern parts of Russian Far East) as well as Japan. For comparison, we investigated several widespread Palearctic corvid taxa with respect to their phylogeographic patterns. A deep split into two lineages was revealed in five cases: Besides C. corone, within Corvus frugilegus, Pica pica, and between the species pairs Corvus monedula-Corvus dauuricus and Cyanopica cyanus-Cyanopica cooki. Although these taxa display a variety of distribution patterns, from disjunct, para/allopatric to continuous, the genetic pattern and level of divergence between clades is very similar. This implies that the differentiation started in about the same time range. In contrast, no differentiation into highly divergent lineages was detected in Corvus corax, Perisoreus infaustus, and Nucifraga caryocatactes. We try to explain the two phylogeographic patterns in corvid birds with ecological factors accompanying the changing climatic conditions during the Pleistocene. The deep genetic splits within several widely distributed Palearctic corvids are discussed with respect to taxonomic questions.

Introduction Urbanization is a global phenomenon that is encroaching on natural habitats and decreasing biodiversity, although it is creating new habitats for some species. The Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is frequently associated with urbanized landscapes but it is unclear what lies behind the high densities of kestrels in the urban environment. Results Occupied nest sites in the city of Vienna, Austria were investigated along a gradient of urbanization (percentage of land covered by buildings or used by traffic). Field surveys determined the abundance of potential prey (birds and rodents) and the results were compared to the birds’ diets. A number of breeding parameters were recorded over the course of three years. The majority of kestrels breed in semi-natural cavities in historic buildings. Nearest neighbour distances (NND) were smallest and reproductive success lowest in the city centre. Abundance of potential prey was not found to relate to the degree of urbanization but there was a significant shift in the birds’ diets from a heavy reliance on rodents in the outskirts of the city to feeding more on small birds in the centre. The use of urban habitats was associated with higher nest failure, partly associated with predation and nest desertion, and with significantly lower hatching rates and smaller fledged broods. Conclusions High breeding densities in urban habitats do not necessarily correlate with high habitat quality. The high density of kestrel nests in the city centre is probably due to the ready availability of breeding cavities. Highly urbanized areas in Vienna are associated with unexpected costs for the city dwelling-raptor, in terms both of prey availability and of reproductive success. The kestrel appears to be exploiting the urban environment but given the poor reproductive performance of urban kestrels it is likely that the species is falling into an ecological trap.

The complete sequence of the mitochondrial (mt) genome of Buteo buteo was determined. Its gene content and nucleotide composition are typical for avian genomes. Due to expanded noncoding sequences, Buteo possesses the longest mt genome sequenced so far (18,674 bp). The gene order comprising the control region and neighboring genes is identical to that of Falco peregrinus, suggesting that the corresponding rearrangement occurred before the falconid/accipitrid split. Phylogenetic analyses performed with the mt sequence of Buteo and nine other mt genomes suggest that for investigations at higher taxonomic levels (e.g., avian orders), concatenated rRNA and tRNA gene sequences are more informative than protein gene sequences with respect to resolution and bootstrap support. Phylogenetic analyses indicate an early split between Accipitridae and Falconidae, which, according to molecular dating of other avian divergence times, can be assumed to have taken place in the late Cretaceous 65-83 MYA.

Background Natural history museums receive a rapidly growing number of requests for tissue samples from preserved specimens for DNA-based studies. Traditionally, dried vertebrate specimens were treated with arsenic because of its toxicity and insect-repellent effect. Arsenic has negative effects on in vivo DNA repair enzymes and consequently may inhibit PCR performance. In bird collections, foot pad samples are often requested since the feet were not regularly treated with arsenic and because they are assumed to provide substantial amounts of DNA. However, the actual influence of arsenic on DNA analyses has never been tested. Findings PCR success of both foot pad and body skin samples was significantly lower in arsenic-treated samples. In general, foot pads performed better than body skin samples. Moreover, PCR success depends on collection date in which younger samples yielded better results. While the addition of arsenic solution to the PCR mixture had a clear negative effect on PCR performance after the threshold of 5.4 μg/μl, such high doses of arsenic are highly unlikely to occur in dried zoological specimens. Conclusions While lower PCR success in older samples might be due to age effects and/or DNA damage through arsenic treatment, our results show no inhibiting effect on DNA polymerase. We assume that DNA degradation proceeds more rapidly in thin tissue layers with low cell numbers that are susceptible to external abiotic influences. In contrast, in thicker parts of a specimen, such as foot pads, the outermost horny skin may act as an additional barrier. Since foot pads often performed better than body skin samples, the intention to preserve morphologically important structures of a specimen still conflicts with the aim to obtain optimal PCR success. Thus, body skin samples from recently collected specimens should be considered as alternative sources of DNA.

The generic name Geranoaetus Kaup, 1844 (type species: Falco aguia Temminck = Spizaetus melanoleucus Vieillot) generally has been applied only to its type species, G. melanoleucus, although inclusion of fossil species in the genus has been suggested (Wetmore 1933; Amadon 1963). Although Geranoaetus is still recognized by some authors (e.g., Thiollay 1994; Remsen et al. 2010), others consider it a junior synonym of the genus Buteo Lacépedè, 1799, because of similarities to some species in that genus (e.g., Wetmore 1933; Hellmayr & Conover 1949; Clark 2006). Recent studies of the molecular phylogenetics of buteonine hawks (Riesing et al. 2003; Lerner et al. 2008; Amaral et al. 2006, 2009) unanimously agree on the lack of monophyly of three buteonine genera, namely Buteo, Leucopternis Kaup, 1847 and Buteogallus Lesson, 1830, as currently recognized (Remsen et al. 2010).

Intensive inventory work on the Mt. Kitanglad massif of north-central Mindanao, Bukidnon Province, Republic of the Philippines, revealed a diverse avifauna. In all, 198 bird species were detected, of which about 172 were likely breeding in the area, placing the mountain among the most diverse sites that have been surveyed in the country. Three migratory species (Luscinia calliope, Turdus chrysolaus, and Motacilla alba) were detected on the island for the first time by contributors to this summary, and known ranges of several species were extended. The massif holds populations of at least 17 of the 18 species narrowly endemic to Mindanao—more than any other site yet studied—as well as almost half the species endemic to the entire Philippine archipelago. Endemic species are concentrated at higher elevations, whereas migrants and widespread species are more frequent in the lowlands. The Kitanglad massif, however, has been modified severely below about 1200 m, with removal of almost all lowland fores...