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Attrition is a critical concern for evaluating the rigor of prevention studies, and the current study provides rates of attrition for subgroups of students and schools who are often sampled for prevention science. This is the first study to provide practical guidance for expected rates of attrition using population-level statewide data; findings indicated that researchers using K-12 school-based samples should plan for attrition rates as high as 27% during middle school and 54% during elementary school. However, researchers should consider the grade levels initially sampled, the length of follow-up, and the specific student characteristics and schools available for sampling. Postsecondary attrition ranged from 45% for bachelor’s degree seekers to 73% for associate degree seekers. This practical guidance can help researchers to proactively plan for attrition in the study design phase, limiting bias and increasing the validity of prevention studies.

The research on students who do not graduate from high school has traditionally focused on students who drop out before their expected graduation date. This ignores the experiences of persisters or persisting students—those who remain enrolled in high school on or beyond their expected graduation date, but have yet to earn a diploma. Where data are available persisting students are estimated to be equal to or greater in number than dropouts. Authors argue that persisting students warrant greater attention in research, policy, and practice efforts meant to better understand and promote high school completion and the postsecondary transition. To this end, this article summarizes the existing literature on persisting students, with attention to how they are defined, their sociodemographic and academic characteristics, and the schools they attend. The article also lays out a research agenda and policy implications, highlighting the importance of better understanding this group and meeting their needs more effectively with the twin goals of (1) adding nuance to our understanding of persisting students and (2) improving the precision in educational research more broadly.

Successfully transitioning to adulthood requires a successful transition from high school into college or the workforce. Yet for many emerging adults, this transition is not successful, leading to disengagement from school and work. Dual enrollment, where high school students enroll in college coursework, may help to facilitate this important life transition. This study applied propensity score matching to statewide administrative data to investigate the effects of dual enrollment on college and early labor market outcomes. We found a significant effect of dual enrollment on 2-year and 4-year college enrollment, degree attainment, and early labor market earnings 6 years after high school, with stronger effects for students who are traditionally underrepresented (e.g., Black and Other race students and students eligible for free and reduced price meals). This study highlights the potential for targeting dual enrollment programs toward underrepresented students to improve the transition into college and the workforce for emerging adults.

Peer influence is one of the most proximal risk factors for adolescent substance use, and decades of theoretical and empirical research point to the importance of disentangling two interrelated processes that often co-occur: (1) peer selection is the process whereby adolescents choose to interact with one another; and (2) peer socialization is the process whereby individual behavior is shaped over time. Recent advancements in social network analyses, including the application of stochastic actor based models to developmental studies, have helped to disentangle the contributions of peer selection and socialization to adolescent substance use. The current study is the first systematic review of this literature, aiming to identify the extent to which adolescent substance use is associated with peer selection and socialization and highlighting patterns in study design across studies. Forty studies that met inclusion criteria were identified and systematically coded for study design characteristics (e.g., number of time points; number of covariates) and significant peer selection and socialization effects by substance use outcome. This review found support for peer selection effects on adolescent alcohol and tobacco use. Additionally, most studies reported peer socialization effects for adolescent alcohol use. However, relatively few studies reported socialization effects for tobacco use. Few studies reported on the peer effects associated with adolescent drug use. Variations in study design, including variations in the bounds of the network and in the covariates included in modeling, helped to identify areas for future research. Future research that helps to further clarify the roles of specific peer selection and socialization mechanisms will help with the development and refinement of prevention and intervention programs focused on reducing adolescent substance use.

Objective/Research Question. How do student- and school-level factors measured in the final year of high school contribute to the odds of a student being assessed to need remediation in Mat...

There is demand among policy-makers for the use of state education longitudinal data systems, yet laws and policies regulating data disclosure limit access to such data, and security concerns and r...

Universal school-based substance use prevention programs are widely disseminated and often include a focus on peer relationships. Network theory and social network analysis (SNA) have emerged as useful theoretical and methodological frameworks for examining the role of peer relationships in prevention and intervention research. We used content analysis to systematically code the peer processes targeted by three universal school based prevention programs. We found that programs focused on peer socialization more than peer selection, and programs focused about evenly on descriptive and injunctive norms. Programs varied in their focus on positive and negative peer processes and behaviors, but most references to peer processes focused on positive processes and negative behaviors. The focus on peer processes at the dyadic, subgroup, and network levels varied across the three programs, with the heaviest focus on network level processes. When peer processes were targeted, it was rare that lessons focused on peer processes for an extended (> 50%) amount of the lesson content. However, when peer processes were a focus, discussion and reflection were commonly encouraged. These patterns are considered in the context of non-intervention research on adolescent peer relations, which highlights the importance of peer selection and dyad-level processes, and the existence of positive peer processes that promote adolescent development. In doing so, we provide a framework that can be used to (1) examine the extent to which a particular program focuses on the different peer processes, and (2) inform systematic experimental studies of the extent to which particular peer processes are malleable in response to intervention efforts.

Black students have higher levels of psychological distress compared with other students, in part to racism and discrimination; however, help-seeking remains low. As a result, most research has been deficit-based focusing on mental illness, which provides an incomplete state of their mental health. Therefore, very little is known about positive mental health (PMH), which is composed of social, emotional, and psychological well-being. To better understand their complete state of mental health, this study examined variations in levels of PMH among 235 Black traditional (ages 18 to 25) and nontraditional (ages 26+) college students attending historically Black colleges and universities and predominantly White institutions, in addition to identifying protective mechanisms promoting flourishing within these subgroups. The sample included 156 traditional college students (Mage = 20.88, SD = 2.12; 83% female) and 79 nontraditional college students (Mage = 36.06, SD = 36.1; 80% female). Approximately 54.4% of nontraditional students were flourishing compared with 43.6% of traditional students who were moderately mentally healthy. No significant differences were found in PMH among Black students attending historically Black colleges and universities and predominantly White institutions. Results indicate spirituality, social support, self-esteem, and racial identity (low centrality and high public regard) are associated with PMH in Black traditional students; however, spirituality, self-esteem, and racial identity (high public regard) were associated with PMH in nontraditional students. Our findings emphasize the importance of integrating identified protective mechanisms into existing programs and services to increase levels of flourishing among Black students within the college setting. Implications and recommendations for future research are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

This study uses propensity scores to statistically approximate the causal effect of having aggressive friends on aggressive behavior in childhood. Participants were 1,355 children (53% girls; 31% minority) in 97 third and fifth grade classrooms enrolled in the Classroom Peer Ecologies Project. Propensity scores were calculated to control for the impact of 21 relevant confounder variables related to having aggressive friendships and aggressive behavior. The 21 variables included demographic, social, and behavioral characteristics measured at the beginning of the school year. Presence/absence of aggressive friends was measured in the middle of the school year, and aggressive behavior was measured at the end of the school year. Results indicate a significant effect of having one or more aggressive friends on children's aggressive behavior above and beyond the effects of the 21 demographic, social, and behavioral variables. The propensity score model is compared to two other models of peer influence. The strengths and practical challenges of using propensity score analysis to study peer influence are discussed.

Group mentoring is an increasingly popular intervention, but is still under-studied. This article reports findings from a qualitative study of the Young Women Leaders Program (YWLP), a combined group and one-on-one mentoring program for early adolescent girls. Protégés ( n = 113) were interviewed post-program about changes they made as a result of the program and mechanisms of those changes. Girls reported making changes in four major domains as a result of YWLP: (a) Academics (e.g., study habits), (b) Relational Development (e.g., trusting people), (c) Self-Regulation (e.g., thinking before acting), and (d) Self-Understanding (e.g., being yourself). Relational development and self-understanding were the most frequently reported types of change. Protégés reported mentors as contributing to changes in academics more often than the mentoring group. They reported the mentoring group as the change mechanism more often than mentors for relational development. Protégés reported the mentors and mentoring groups about equally as the mechanisms of change for self-regulation and self-understanding. The findings support prior research on group mentoring and suggest that social and relational skills are a developmental domain in which group-based mentoring programs for early adolescent girls may be particularly effective at intervening.

Background Despite previous research highlighting the importance of peer selection and socialization as distinct processes contributing to adolescent substance use, prior research indicates that universal school-based substance use prevention programs focus more heavily on socialization when compared to selection. Methods This content analysis examining the peer selection processes targeted by prevention programs is guided by the following research questions: (1) To what extent do current evidence-based programs target peer selection? (2) When peer selection is targeted, what underlying mechanisms are the focus? (3) What level of depth is reached when peer selection is targeted by prevention programs? Using the Blueprints for Healthy Youth Development database, two programs meeting our inclusion criteria were included in this study. Results Thirty-three percent of program lessons included a focus on the peer selection process. Behavioral similarity was targeted more frequently than selection based on popularity. When peer selection was targeted, reflection was often encouraged. Conclusions Peer selection is a promising mechanism for the development of future prevention programs. Future intervention research that helps to test the malleability of peer selection processes would help to better understand how to best incorporate peer selection processes into prevention program content.

There is limited extant knowledge regarding academic and workforce experiences of students who remain engaged in high school, but do not graduate in the traditional four years. The current study used Multilevel modeling and descriptive statistics with statewide linked longitudinal administrative data (N = 2917) to (1) examine the student- and school-level factors related to earning a diploma during the fifth year of high school and (2) describe proximate academic and career outcomes for non-graduates and fifth year graduates. Multiple student-level factors were associated with increased likelihood of earning a diploma in the fifth year (e.g. special education eligibility, passing exit exams, higher attendance). Returning dropouts were less likely than persisters to earn a diploma in year five. In addition, the type and composition of the school a student attended affected the likelihood that a student would earn a diploma in year five. We also report population-level rates of participation in the workforce and postsecondary enrollment for fifth-year graduates and non-graduates. Fifth-year graduates outperformed non-graduates in both categories. Our findings provide insight into near term outcomes for students in a fifth-year of high school and suggest key factors that can be used for early identification and targeting services towards this under-researched and under-served population.

This study tests whether subtyping justice-involved adolescent girls into violent and delinquent (VAD), delinquent only, and low subgroups is predictive of adult health and offending. We use data from the Gender and Aggression Project to examine young adulthood functioning among women ( N = 114) who were incarcerated during adolescence. After controlling for age, initial official-reports of offending, and baseline scores on the outcome of interest, the VAD subgroup experienced the worst functioning in young adulthood. Compared with the delinquency only subgroup, the VAD subgroup recidivated at higher rates and reported more internalizing psychopathology and physical health discomfort. Findings indicate that justice-involved girls should not be treated as a homogeneous group and prevention and intervention services should focus on girls who are most at risk in adolescence.

This paper focused on the effects of a combined group and one-on-one mentoring program targeted specifically toward adolescent girls with a focus on increasing competence, connection, and autonomy (Ryan and Deci in Am Psychol 55(1):68–78, 2000). Participants were seventh-grade girls participating in the Young Women Leaders Program (YWLP) (n = 79) and a group of comparison girls not receiving intervention (n = 47). The sample was predominantly minority (72 % nonwhite) and the majority of participants received free or reduced price lunch (65 %). Results indicated no change in self-reported global self-esteem (one’s overall feeling of satisfaction with self) for girls participating in YWLP, whereas the comparison group declined in self-reported global self-esteem from pre- to posttest. Additionally, within the YWLP program group, girls receiving free/reduced lunch self-reported declines in school self-esteem (one’s overall feeling of satisfaction with school), whereas girls not receiving free/reduced lunch experienced no change. Implications for school-based programs, specifically mentoring programs targeted toward adolescent girls are discussed.

To optimize the effectiveness of youth mentoring it is important to begin to identify specific preexisting characteristics of mentors that lead to positive experiences for adolescent mentees. College women mentors, aged 18 to 22 years, were paired with middle school girls, aged 11 to 14 years, for weekly one-on-one and group mentoring in an 8-month, school-based youth mentoring program. For the sampled 142 mentor-mentee dyads participating in the program, mentor's reported academic self-worth, parent relationship, and not being too autonomous were important preexisting characteristics related to mentee satisfaction. Mentor's initial level of depression was negatively correlated with mentee's self-reported improvement in competence, while mentor anxiety was positively correlated. Finally, the relationship between mentor's autonomy (negative) and ethnocultural empathy (positive) and mentee outcomes were stronger for cross-race versus same-race pairs. Implications for mentoring programs that use college students as youth mentors are discussed.

The current study explores the potential of one-on-one mentoring facilitated within a structured group format for developing connection and sustaining mentor-mentee relationships with early adolescent girls. Results from a mixed-methods study using survey and observational data reveal that college student mentors and their seventh grade mentees report moderate-to-high satisfaction with the group experience, with no mean differences between groups. Yet there were significant differences between groups in the group members’ (mentees) satisfaction with their one-on-one mentoring relationships. Although all groups demonstrated high levels of some positive social processes related to connectedness (e.g., fun), groups in which mentees’ reported higher levels of satisfaction with their one-on-one relationships engaged in more higher level positive social processes (e.g., caretaking). Groups in which mentee’s reported lower satisfaction with their one-on-one relationships demonstrated more negative social processes (e.g., disengagement). Implications for after-school settings are discussed.

Identifying childhood precursors for depression has been challenging and yet important for understanding the rapid increase in the rate of depression among adolescent girls. This study examined the prospective relations of preadolescent girls’ emotion regulation and parenting style with depressive symptoms. Participants were 225 children and their biological mothers recruited from a larger longitudinal community study. Girls’ observed positive and negative emotion during a conflict resolution task with mothers, their ability to regulate sadness and anger, and their perception of parental acceptance and psychological control were assessed at age 9. Depressive symptoms were assessed by self-report at ages 9 and 10. The results indicated interactions between child emotion characteristics and parenting in predicting later depression. Specifically, low levels of positive emotion expression predicted higher levels of depressive symptoms in the context of moderate to high parental psychological control. Low levels of sadness regulation were predictive of high levels of depressive symptoms in the context of low to moderate parental acceptance. Findings from this study support the hypothesis that the prospective association between vulnerabilities in emotion regulation and depression are moderated by the caregiving environment.

Determining the interdependence of family and peer influences on the development of delinquency is critical to defining and implementing effective interventions. This study explored the longitudinal relationship among harsh punishment, positive parenting, peer delinquency, and adolescent delinquency using data from a sub-sample of the Pittsburgh Girls Study. Participants were 622 adolescent girls (42% European American, 53% African American); families living in low-income neighborhoods were oversampled. After controlling for the effects of race, living in a single parent household, and receipt of public assistance, harsh punishment and peer delinquency in early adolescence were positively related to delinquency in mid-adolescence. No significant main effects of positive parenting or interaction effects between parenting and peer delinquency were observed. Thus, the effects of harsh parenting and peer delinquency are independent and perhaps additive, rather than interdependent. Results indicate the continued importance of targeting both parenting and peer relationships to prevent delinquency in adolescent girls.

The relationship between family functioning and adolescents' physical aggression has been well established, but whether these relationships might differ by ethnicity has received less attention. Ethnic variations may be important for targeting prevention programs to specific youth and families. This study examined the longitudinal relationship between family cohesion, parental monitoring, and physical aggression using data from the Multisite Violence Prevention Project sample of high-risk youth (elevated aggression). Participants were 1,232 high-risk middle school students (65% male; 70% African American; 15% Hispanic). Meaningful demographic variations were identified. After controlling for intervention condition and study site, family cohesion was significantly negatively related to physical aggression, more so for Hispanic youth. Parental monitoring was negatively associated with physical aggression for African American youth only. Our findings point to the importance of developing culturally sensitive family interventions to prevent physical aggression in middle school.

Summary Despite the substantial amount of data supporting a link between HPA-axis functioning and depression, the ontogeny of this association is not known. The aim of the present study was to contribute data on the developmental interface of HPA-axis functioning and depression in girls by testing associations between repeated measures of depression symptoms and cortisol levels in childhood and early adolescence. Girls ( N = 232) and their mothers, who were participating in a longitudinal study, were interviewed about depression symptoms annually from ages 9 to 12 years. Cortisol was assayed from saliva at ages 10 and 12 years upon arrival to the lab and following administration of the cold pressor task (CPT). Time of day of collection of saliva and level of pubertal development were included as covariates in model testing. Although most girls did not show an increase in cortisol in response to the CPT, lower levels of output during the CPT were associated with higher levels of depression symptoms. These findings were observed only for cortisol levels assessed at age 12 years. Girls with low levels of cortisol output at age 12, and decreases in output from ages 10 to 12, had stable or slightly increasing depression symptoms from ages 9 to 12 years. We conclude that associations between HPA-axis functioning and depression emerge as early as age 12. However, individual differences in cortisol levels at age 12 also were associated with depression symptoms at earlier ages. The data suggest two possibilities: (1) that childhood depression is associated with HPA-axis dysregulation, but that age related changes in the sensitivity or plasticity of the HPA-axis may result in a delay in the emergence of such an association, or (2) that dysregulation of the functioning of the HPA-axis develops following repeated experience of depression symptoms.

Mapping the relationship of peer influences and parental/family characteristics on delinquency can help expand the understanding of findings that show an interdependence between peer and family predictors. This study explored the longitudinal relationship between two characteristics of peer relationships (violence and perceived popularity) with subsequent individual delinquency and the moderating role of family characteristics (cohesion and parental monitoring) using data from the Chicago Youth Development Study. Participants were 364 inner-city residing adolescent boys (54 % African American; 40 % Hispanic). After controlling for the effects of age and ethnicity, peer violence is positively related to boys’ delinquency. The effect of popularity depends on parental monitoring, such that the relationship between popularity and delinquency is positive when parental monitoring is low, but there is no relationship when parental monitoring is high. Furthermore, parental monitoring contributes to the relationship between peer violence and delinquency such that there is a stronger relationship when parental monitoring is low. Additionally, there is a stronger relationship between peer violence and delinquency for boys from high cohesive families. Findings point to the value of attention to multiple aspects of peer and family relationships in explaining and intervening in the risk for delinquency. Furthermore, findings indicate the importance of family-focused interventions in preventing delinquency.

To apply a diathesis × stress model to testing the association between peer victimization and depression in a sample of preadolescent girls.DSM-IV symptoms of depression symptoms were measured at ages 9 and 11, assertiveness and peer victimization were assessed by youth report at age 9.The interaction of low levels of assertiveness and high peer victimization at age 9 was predictive of depression symptoms at age 11, controlling for earlier depression symptoms.The results extend the published data on peer relations and depression by identifying a group of girls who may be particularly vulnerable to the stress of negative peer interactions.