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Background: Since the appearance of Vesalius's treatises, anatomical illustration has eluded unified conventions and strictly defined timeframes, resulting from the individual struggles of scholars and collaborating artists. Until the 19th century, diverse styles characterized anatomical illustrations, and the conventions in which they were created depended on both by cultural conditions and the state of knowledge about the structure of the human body. Aim: This paper presents selected illustrated anatomical sources published in the early 19th century. Conclusions: In early 19th-century anatomical iconography, there was a trend of deepening the importance of scientific illustration as a carrier of information and knowledge. Illustrations from this period are still characterized by various styles, degrees of scientific precision, and the scope of detail presented. However, during this period, attempts were made to faithfully reflect the reality of the dissecting room and the anatomical specimen.

Background: Anatomy is one of the oldest fields of medicine. Knowledge of the structure and function of the human body has been acquired gradually, even laboriously, over the centuries, and its origins can be traced back to the simplest, often casual observations performed on human and animal organisms. Aim: Exploring the secrets of the structure and function of human and other organisms' bodies has a long-lasting tradition. The aim of this paper is presentation of the original, most ancient sources of anatomical knowledge. Summary: The circumstances in which the ancients had the opportunity to learn about the structure of the body of animals and humans included: hunting and killing animals for food; magical and divination rituals, during which the internal organs of animals were used; religious ceremonies in which animal sacrifices were made to deities; the process of embalming corpses, which, according to beliefs held in some civilizations, made possible an afterlife in the underworld (abode of the dead); and battles fought with wild animals or enemies, during which extensive open wounds were sustained, allowing limited insight into the body's interior and composition. Conclusions: Exploring human and other organisms' body structure and function has a long-lasting tradition. The origins of exploring anatomical knowledge date back to ancient times.

Introduction: Inferior vena cava (IVC) anomalies rarely occur in the population, although the double vena cava presented is the most common among them. Typically, the posterior cardinal veins undergo regression, whereas the subcardinal veins join to form the suprarenal part of the vena cava (above renal arteries). The supracardinal veins connect to the inferior infrarenal vena cava (under renal arteries). If the veins are separated and do not form a common vein trunk, the double IVC develops. Double IVC is usually asymptomatic as it is discovered mainly intraoperatively or incidentally in imagining tests. Case description: During routine dissection of the abdominal cavity of a female cadaver, duplication of the IVC was observed. Above the renal arteries, at the level of the first lumbar vertebra, the right and left vena cava drained into a short common trunk of the IVC. We also observed that the left renal vein opened into the left vena cava while the right renal vein drained into the common venous trunk, just above the left and right vena cava. Conclusions: This report shows a double IVC variant in which, during embryological development, the supracardinal veins remained separated, forming a duplication of the infrarenal IVC. Additionally, the short part of the subcardinal veins also did not connect to the common trunk. Therefore, the right and left vein junction was located above the renal arteries. Clinicians should be aware of this anomaly because knowledge of retroperitoneal space venous drainage variants allows one to avoid unforeseen severe complications during urological and gynecological procedures, which is crucial for the patient's safety.

Introduction: The petrosphenoidal ligament (also termed as petroclival ligament) was described in 1859 by Wenzel Gruber, a Russian anatomist. Hence, the popular eponym of Gruber's ligament. Typically, the petrosphenoidal ligament is stretched between the petrous apex and in the vicinity of the posterior clinoid process, forming the posteromedial wall of the Dorello's canal located within the inferomedial paraclival triangle. This report presents a previously unreported attachment of the petrosphenoidal ligament to the posterior genu of the cavernous internal carotid artery. Since the ligament can be a helpful landmark during neurosurgical procedures, our report might have practical value. Case description: During routine dissection of the isolated sagittal section of the head from a male cadaver, an atypical attachment of the petrosphenoidal (petroclival) ligament was observed. The proximal ligament's attachment was bifid. Some ligament bundles originated from the lateral aspect of the clivus, while another group of bundles originated from the posteromedial aspect of the posterior genu of the cavernous internal carotid artery. The ligament had a triangular shape with a broader distal attachment to the petrous apex. The meningohypophysial trunk was in juxtaposition to the arterial attachment of the ligament. It was noted that the arterial attachment was well-fixed to the internal carotid artery's adventitia. Conclusions: The dual origin of the petrosphenoidal ligament to the clivus and internal carotid artery's posterior genu causes atypical fixation of both structures. It can potentially alter selected surgical procedures, such as mobilization of the internal carotid artery's short vertical segment and posterior genu.

Background: The pericallosal artery (PrcA) can be referred to as a segment of the anterior cerebral artery that extends from the origin of the callosomarginal artery along the callosal sulcus to the splenium of the corpus callosum. Methods: This report presents an atypical morphology of the pericallosal artery A4 segment modifying the macroscopic structure of the corpus callosum. No similar case was found in the medical literature. Therefore, this report aims to present the PrcA anatomical anomaly of potential clinical significance. Case description: During routine dissection of the human brain, bilateral atypical formation of pericallosal artery A4 segment was found. The anomaly was that the artery formed a loop that altered brain tissue with hollow formation within the corpus callosum trunk. The atypical loop of the pericallosal artery gave off the long callosal artery on both sides. Conclusions: Arterial anomalies can alter the brain tissue. Thus anatomical studies on various anomalies can be significant from the clinical point of view.

Background: In most cases, the brachial artery ends in the cubital fossa at the level of the radial neck, where it divides into two terminal branches, i.e., the radial and ulnar arteries. However, there are numerous brachial artery variants regarding its origin, branching pattern and termination mode. Nonetheless, trifurcation of the brachial artery is rarely reported in the medical literature. Methods: Present report describes the aforementioned variant in the brachial artery termination – including its embryological background, classification, and practical significance. Case description: The anatomical variation presented herein was discovered during a routine dissection of an isolated adult right upper limb, fixed in 10% formalin solution. The anatomical relationships of the brachial artery (4.76 mm in diameter) in the arm were typical. In the cubital fossa, 39 mm below the interepicondylar line of the humerus, a trifurcation of the brachial artery was observed. In this case, the brachial artery had three terminal branches, i.e., the radial artery (it arose from the anterior aspect of the brachial artery end point and was 2.35 mm in diameter), the ulnar artery (that arose from the postero-medial aspect of the brachial artery end point and was 3.57 mm in diameter), and the radial recurrent artery (it arose from the lateral aspect of the brachial artery end point and was 1.84 mm in diameter). Conclusions: Different variants of the brachial artery termination may be observed. Trifurcation of the brachial artery may appear when an additional branch arises at the point of the artery's division into terminal branches. A varied origin and course of the radial artery might hinder the success of the vascular procedures associated with it.

Background: The middle cerebral artery (MCA) is the strongest branch of the internal carotid artery and its direct continuation. As MCA is one of the principal intracranial vessels, recording cases of its atypical anatomy is fully justified. In the presented report, we described the anatomical variant of the MCA division and discussed the classification, surgical anatomy, and clinical meaning of this finding. Case description: We found the atypical early division of the MCA during routine dissection of the isolated right cerebral hemisphere. Bifurcation of the MCA was located proximally to the limen insulae, 9.4 mm from the vessel's origin. The MCA branched into the thinner superior trunk and thicker inferior trunk. Thus, the M1 segment of the MCA was shorter than usual, and within the M2 segment, two arterial trunks were observed crossing the limen insulae. Conclusions: The knowledge of anatomical variations of cerebral vascularization should be helpful for everyday medical practice and surgical training. The length of the MCA M1 segment can determine the optimal surgical approach for surgical dissecting and clipping MCA bifurcation aneurysms.

Aortic valve interstitial cells (VICs) constitute a heterogeneous population involved in the maintenance of unique valvular architecture, ensuring proper hemodynamic function but also engaged in valve degeneration. Recently, cells similar to telocytes/interstitial Cajal-like cells described in various organs were found in heart valves. The aim of this study was to examine the density, distribution, and spatial organization of a VIC subset co-expressing CD34 and PDGFRα in normal aortic valves and to investigate if these cells are associated with the occurrence of early signs of valve calcific remodeling. We examined 28 human aortic valves obtained upon autopsy. General valve morphology and the early signs of degeneration were assessed histochemically. The studied VICs were identified by immunofluorescence (CD34, PDGFRα, vimentin), and their number in standardized parts and layers of the valves was evaluated. In order to show the complex three-dimensional structure of CD34+/PDGFRα+ VICs, whole-mount specimens were imaged by confocal microscopy, and subsequently rendered using the Imaris (Bitplane AG, Zürich, Switzerland) software. CD34+/PDGFRα+ VICs were found in all examined valves, showing significant differences in the number, distribution within valve tissue, spatial organization, and morphology (spherical/oval without projections; numerous short projections; long, branching, occasionally moniliform projections). Such a complex morphology was associated with the younger age of the subjects, and these VICs were more frequent in the spongiosa layer of the valve. Both the number and percentage of CD34+/PDGFRα+ VICs were inversely correlated with the age of the subjects. Valves with histochemical signs of early calcification contained a lower number of CD34+/PDGFRα+ cells. They were less numerous in proximal parts of the cusps, i.e., areas prone to calcification. The results suggest that normal aortic valves contain a subpopulation of CD34+/PDGFRα+ VICs, which might be involved in the maintenance of local microenvironment resisting to pathologic remodeling. Their reduced number in older age could limit the self-regenerative properties of the valve stroma.