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The estimated populations of domestic cats in the USA, whether pets, stray or feral, vary widely and have changed significantly over the past forty to fifty years. Accurate estimates of these populations are necessary to determine appropriate policy responses to calls to control domestic cats and to determine the impact of domestic cats on wildlife populations. Domestic cat predation on wild animals is being hotly debated in Australia, New Zealand and the USA (but much less so in the UK). The paper explores some of the different policy approaches being promoted in each country and examines the status of cats in each country. For example, although there is strong movement to control cat predation in New Zealand, the country also has the highest relative (to humans) population of pet cats in the world, despite the vulnerability of native animals to predation by introduced carnivores.

Publisher's version (útgefin grein), No other animal has a closer mutualistic relationship with humans than the dog (Canis familiaris). Domesticated from the Eurasian grey wolf (Canis lupus), dogs have evolved alongside humans over millennia in a relationship that has transformed dogs and the environments in which humans and dogs have co-inhabited. The story of the dog is the story of recent humanity, in all its biological and cultural complexity. By exploring human-dog-environment interactions throughout time and space, it is possible not only to understand vital elements of global history, but also to critically assess our present-day relationship with the natural world, and to begin to mitigate future global challenges. In this paper, co-authored by researchers from across the natural and social sciences, arts and humanities, we argue that a dog-centric approach provides a new model for future academic enquiry and engagement with both the public and the global environmental agenda., This research was funded by the Annenberg PetSpace Foundation: Human-Animal Bond. DP was supported by the Dog Aging Project U19 grant AG057377 from the NIH National Institute on Aging. GL was supported by the European Research Council (ERC-2013-StG-337574-UNDEAD). NS, LJM, and GL were supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AH/N004558/1). CW was supported by Maddies Fund.

Regulatory toxicology has begun to embrace new hazard characterisation approaches, which can be integrated into regulatory safety assessments. The vision is to fundamentally change the way the safety of chemicals is assessed, by replacing or reducing the use of traditional animal experiments with a predictive toxicology that is based on a comprehensive understanding of how chemicals can cause adverse effects in humans (MoA and AOP), or adversely impact on the environment, and a ‘renewed’ awareness of the importance of the fate of the chemical in the body (kinetics) for the induction of adverse effects. Integrated Approaches to Testing and Assessment (IATA) will help evaluators to assess data from such novel methods consistently, and to understand their relevance for specific endpoints, to obtain reproducible, understandable and statistically-sound results. To position toxicity data generated by alternative methods in a regulatory context, the need for reliable methods has to be combined with a strategy for how to best integrate the resulting data with computational modelling and existing knowledge and information, in order to provide a prediction with sufficient confidence for acceptance in a safety assessment. The new concept proposed by the US Food and Drug Administration to replace formal validation with qualification for a specific context of use, seems to be the most promising way forward. Once a new model or assay is considered to be qualified for a specific context of use, industry and other stakeholders can use it for its qualified purpose during product development, and regulators should then be confident in applying it without needing to re-review the underlying data supporting validation and acceptance for specific purposes.

Simple Summary The pet overpopulation problem in the United States has changed significantly since the 1970s. The purpose of this review is to document these changes and propose factors that have been and are currently driving the dog population dynamics in the US. In the 1960s, about one quarter of the dog population was still roaming the streets (whether owned or not) and 10 to 20-fold more dogs were euthanized in shelters compared to the present. We present data from across the United States which support the idea that, along with increased responsible pet ownership behaviors, sterilization efforts in shelters and private veterinary hospitals have played a role driving and sustaining the decline in unwanted animals entering shelters (and being euthanized). Additionally, data shows that adoption numbers are rising slowly across the US and have become an additional driver of declining euthanasia numbers in the last decade. We conclude that the cultural shift in how society and pet owners relate to dogs has produced positive shelter trends beyond the decline in intake. The increased level of control and care dog owners provide to their dogs, as well as the increasing perception of dogs as family members, are all indicators of the changing human-dog relationship in the US. Abstract Dog management in the United States has evolved considerably over the last 40 years. This review analyzes available data from the last 30 to 40 years to identify national and local trends. In 1973, The Humane Society of the US (The HSUS) estimated that about 13.5 million animals (64 dogs and cats per 1000 people) were euthanized in the US (about 20% of the pet population) and about 25% of the dog population was still roaming the streets. Intake and euthanasia numbers (national and state level) declined rapidly in the 1970s due to a number of factors, including the implementation of shelter sterilization policies, changes in sterilization practices by private veterinarians and the passage of local ordinances implementing differential licensing fees for intact and sterilized pets. By the mid-1980s, shelter intake had declined by about 50% (The HSUS estimated 7.6–10 million animals euthanized in 1985). Data collected by PetPoint over the past eight years indicate that adoptions increased in the last decade and may have become an additional driver affecting recent euthanasia declines across the US. We suspect that sterilizations, now part of the standard veterinary care, and the level of control of pet dogs exercised by pet owners (roaming dogs are now mostly absent in many US communities) played an important part in the cultural shift in the US, in which a larger proportion of families now regard their pet dogs as “family members”.

Simple Summary Over the past ten years, unprecedented changes in the way farm animals are kept on intensive production facilities have begun to take hold in the U.S. veal, egg and pork industries. Propelled by growing public support for animal welfare, the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) has successfully led the effort to transition farms from using restrictive cages and crates to more open aviary and group housing systems that offer the animals far more freedom to express natural behavior. This paper describes the background history of the movement, the strategy and approach of the campaign and the challenges that were overcome to enable this major shift in farming practices. The events chronicled are set within the context of the larger societal concern for animals and the important contributions of other animal protection organizations. Abstract In this paper, the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) farm animal protection work over the preceding decade is described from the perspective of the organization. Prior to 2002, there were few legal protections for animals on the farm, and in 2005, a new campaign at the HSUS began to advance state ballot initiatives throughout the country, with a decisive advancement in California (Proposition 2) that paved the way for further progress. Combining legislative work with undercover farm and slaughterhouse investigations, litigation and corporate engagement, the HSUS and fellow animal protection organizations have made substantial progress in transitioning the veal, pork and egg industries away from intensive confinement systems that keep the animals in cages and crates. Investigations have become an important tool for demonstrating widespread inhumane practices, building public support and convincing the retail sector to publish meaningful animal welfare policies. While federal legislation protecting animals on the farm stalled, there has been steady state-by-state progress, and this is complemented by major brands such as McDonald’s and Walmart pledging to purchase only from suppliers using cage-free and crate-free animal housing systems. The evolution of societal expectations regarding animals has helped propel the recent wave of progress and may also be driven, in part, by the work of animal protection organizations.

Simple Summary The issues of openness, transparency and public engagement about animal research have taken focus in several different countries in recent years. This paper gives an account of a two-day-long expert forum that brought together policy experts and academics from Australia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. The aim was to share current governance practices regarding openness and transparency of animal research and to brainstorm ideas for better public engagement. The facilitated conversations were transcribed and analysed to create this report and recommendations that encourage international policy-makers and other stakeholders to engage in genuine dialogue about the use of animals in research. Abstract In November 2013, a group of international experts in animal research policy (n = 11) gathered in Vancouver, Canada, to discuss openness and accountability in animal research. The primary objective was to bring together participants from various jurisdictions (United States, Sweden, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Canada and the United Kingdom) to share practices regarding the governance of animals used in research, testing and education, with emphasis on the governance process followed, the methods of community engagement, and the balance of openness versus confidentiality. During the forum, participants came to a broad consensus on the need for: (a) evidence-based metrics to allow a “virtuous feedback” system for evaluation and quality assurance of animal research, (b) the need for increased public access to information, together with opportunities for stakeholder dialogue about animal research, (c) a greater diversity of views to be represented on decision-making committees to allow for greater balance and (d) a standardized and robust ethical decision-making process that incorporates some sort of societal input. These recommendations encourage aspirations beyond merely imparting information and towards a genuine dialogue that represents a shared agenda surrounding laboratory animal use.

The article reviews the early history of FRAME from the perspective of its first "Scientific Administrator". The roles of Mrs Hegarty the founder, and other early contributors to FRAME's development are described. In addition, the article discusses FRAME's strategic approach to the subject and how Mrs Hegarty's background influenced the development of that approach.

Relatively little work has been done on the development of cell culture and other models to assess the acute toxicity of chemicals. Many of the present shortcomings have already been addressed in earlier presentations but will be summarized by the author. The parameters necessary for an appropriate model of acute toxicity will be discussed and the difference between testing for specific and general effects will be highlighted. Some possible future research directions and research needs will be discussed.

Finding ways to minimize pain and distress in research animals is a continuing goal in the laboratory animal research field. Pain and distress, however, are not synonymous, and measures that alleviate one may not affect the other. Here, the authors provide a summary of a meeting held in February 2004 that focused on distress in laboratory animals. They discuss the difficulties associated with defining 'distress,' propose methods to aid in recognizing and alleviating distressful conditions, and provide recommendations for animal research conduct and oversight that would minimize distress experienced by laboratory animals.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most commonly used agent for euthanasia of laboratory rodents, used on an estimated tens of millions of laboratory rodents per year worldwide, yet there is a growing body of evidence indicating that exposure to CO2 causes more than momentary pain and distress in these and other animals. We reviewed the available literature on the use of CO2 for euthanasia (as well as anaesthesia) and also informally canvassed laboratory animal personnel for their opinions regarding this topic. Our review addresses key issues such as CO2 flow rate and final concentration, presence of oxygen, and prefilled chambers (the animal is added to the chamber once a predetermined concentration and flow rate have been reached) versus gradual induction (the animal is put into an empty chamber and the gas agent(s) is gradually introduced at a fixed rate). Internationally, animal research standards specify that any procedure that would cause pain or distress in humans should be assumed to do so in non-human animals as well (Public Health Service 1986, US Department of Agriculture 1997, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 2000). European Union guidelines, however, specify a certain threshold of pain or distress, such as 'skilled insertion of a hypodermic needle', as the starting point at which regulation of the use of animals in experimental or other scientific procedures begins (Biotechnology Regulatory Atlas n.d.). There is clear evidence in the human literature that CO2 exposure is painful and distressful, while the non-human literature is equivocal. However, the fact that a number of studies do conclude that CO2 causes pain and distress in animals indicates a need for careful reconsideration of its use. Finally, this review offers recommendations for alternatives to the use of CO2 as a euthanasia agent.

(2012). The Origins and First Ten Years of Anthrozoos. Anthrozoos: Vol. 25, No. sup1, pp. s5-s7.

Nature 545, 446–451 (2017); doi:10.1038/nature22364 For 6 of the 96 patients included in this Article (patients CRUK0014, CRUK0030, CRUK0048, CRUK0059, CRUK0096 and CRUK0097) incorrect tumour volumetric data and positron emission tomography (PET) tumour background ratio (TBR) data were analysed. This error occurred because of the incorrect assignment of patient identifiers during the anonymization mandated by the independent review board of pre-operative computed tomography (CT) scans belonging to these patients.

A workshop sponsored by the Human Toxicology Project Consortium (HTPC), "Building Shared Experience to Advance Practical Application of Pathway-Based Toxicology: Liver Toxicity Mode-of-Action" brought together experts from a wide range of perspectives to inform the process of pathway development and to advance two prototype pathways initially developed by the European Commission Joint Research Center (JRC): liver-specific fibrosis and steatosis. The first half of the workshop focused on the theory and practice of pathway development; the second on liver disease and the two prototype pathways. Participants agreed pathway development is extremely useful for organizing information and found that focusing the theoretical discussion on a specific AOP is extremely helpful. In addition, it is important to include several perspectives during pathway development, including information specialists, pathologists, human health and environmental risk assessors, and chemical and product manufacturers, to ensure the biology is well captured and end use is considered.

A survey of 5000 American middle and high school level biology teachers was completed to assess attitudes and classroom practice relating to dissection and alternative teaching methods. A preliminary sample of 494 respondents revealed that 79% of teachers used dissection to teach biology. While 72% believed that dissection was an important part of the curriculum, 17% disagreed; 69% considered dissection to be an essential hands-on activity. While 31% believed that alternatives were as good as dissection for teaching anatomy and physiology, 55% disagreed. The primary reason given for continuing dissection, rather than exclusively using alternatives, was the hands-on aspect of dissection (69%). While the majority (66%) of biology teachers favoured student choice between dissection and other learning methods, 20% disagreed. Although the effectiveness of alternative methods has been documented, and ethical arguments against dissection have been advanced, the mainstream introduction of humane alternatives to dissection requires a transformation of the beliefs, experience and practice of biology teachers.

(1995). Determining Dog and Cat Numbers and Population Dynamics. Anthrozoos: Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 199-205.

The past one hundred fifty years of debate over the use of animals in research and testing has been characterized mainly byad hominem attacks and on uncritical rejection of the other sides’ arguments. In the classroom, it is important to avoid repeating exercises in public relations and to demand sound scholarship.

This review attempts to provide an introduction to the complicated subject of refinement, the third R in the concept of alternatives. It starts with a brief discussion of what refinement means and the lack of specific attention paid to this third R. This is followed by an analysis of the conceptual underpinnings of pain, distress and suffering, and the problems of both definition and measurement which must be faced if we are to be objective and consistent in our search for refinement. The review then touches upon husbandry, care and handling issues as they affect animal discomfort and distress. Antibody production, both polyclonal and monoclonal, is discussed as an example of the refinement of research techniques. Finally, a few brief comments are offered on the refinement of a variety of other experimental techniques, including those used in toxicology, cancer research and behavioural research.

The Three Rs, reduction, refinement and replacement, were introduced in 1959 by Russell & Burch in their important publication The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique. These Three Rs are now collectively referred to as alternatives. Using the letter R, we have developed an expanded list of Rs not only to stimulate our own thinking, but to encourage others to examine the issue of alternatives in animal research.

Whether they realize it or not, most stakeholders in the debate about using animals for research agree on the common goal of seeking an end to research that causes animals harm. The central issues in the controversy are about how much effort should be devoted to that goal and when we might reasonably expect to achieve it. Some progress has already been made: The number of animals used for research is about half what it was in the 1970s, and biomedical research has reached the point where we can reasonably begin to envision a time when it could advance without causing harm to animals. With some effort and aggressive development of new biomedical research technologies, full replacement of animals in harmful research is within our grasp. The goal will not be reached all at once, however, and phasing out invasive research on all nonhuman primates should be the priority.

This article addresses practical problems about our use of animals to assess the toxicological risks posed by various drugs, cleaning agents, pesticides, cosmetics, and the like. It presents scientific doubts about the usefulness of much of the animal test data for human risk assessment. It argues that there is now a consensus that animal tests are not particularly effective in predicting harm to either humans or the environment. This consensus is rapidly causing interest in toxicology to shift away from animal tests and toward quicker and cheaper alternative test systems. It is also critical of the current system of institutional review committees (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees in the United States), which in principle are comprised of people who are chosen as reasonable representatives of the various parties who have a stake in the decisions of these committees.

(1994). The Health Benefits of Human-Animal Interactions. Anthrozoos: Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 85-89.

In the past 200 years, moral theories and attitudes toward both humans and animals have changed considerably. These changes have led to widespread criticism of animal use in some or all research and testing. For the most part, the debate has been marked more by rhetoric than scholarship, but the underlying philosophical theories and their protagonists have been a very important influence on the modern debate over animal use. This paper examines some of the moral philosophy and attempts to present the main arguments concisely and simply and to refute common misconceptions.

(1992). Companion Animal Demographics and Unwanted Animals in the United States. Anthrozoos: Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 222-225.

(1992). Shelters and Pet Overpopulation: A Statistical Black Hole. Anthrozoos: Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 140-143.

A survey was conducted in four Massachusetts communities to determine levels of pet ownership and the sterilization status of those pets, to analyze the impact of sterilization on pet overpopulation, to identify major reasons owners do or do not sterilize their animals, and to assess the impact of cost on an owner's decision to sterilize, among other factors. The survey was conducted by telephone using randomly generated telephone numbers. Interviews were conducted with 343 households of which 42% owned pets and 58% owned no pets. The percentages of households owning dogs (22%) and cats (21%) were lower than those reported in national surveys, as were the numbers of dogs (1.17) and cats (1.66) per owning household. Information was collected on 209 animals of which 42% were dogs and 52% were cats. Of the animals in the survey, 18.6% were intact and 81.3% were sterilized. Female dogs were sterilized at a significantly higher rate (87.8%) than were male dogs (45%). There was no difference in the ster...

This article outlines the development of academic veterinary interest in the human–animal bond (HAB) and provides short summaries of the various centers currently studying the HAB at North American universities. Although most of these centers are at veterinary schools, the level of involvement by veterinarians is surprisingly low, considering how important a strong HAB is for the average veterinary practitioner (the stronger the bond, the more the client will be willing to pay for veterinary services).

We attempt to bring the concepts of pain, suffering, and anxiety into sufficient focus to make them serviceable for empirical investigation. The common-sense view that many animals experience these phenomena is supported by empirical and philosophical arguments. We conclude, first, that pain, suffering, and anxiety are different conceptually and as phenomena, and should not be conflated. Second, suffering can be the result — or perhaps take the form — of a variety of states including pain, anxiety, fear, and boredom. Third, pain and nociception are not equivalent and should be carefully distinguished. Fourth, nociception can explain the behavior of insects and perhaps other invertebrates (except possibly the cephalopods). Fifth, a behavioral inhibition system associated with anxiety in humans seems to be present in mammals and most or all other vertebrates. Based on neurochemical and behavioral evidence, it seems parsimonious to claim that these animals are capable of experiencing anxious states.

(1991). Ethical Issues in Animal-Assisted Therapy Programs. Anthrozoos: Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 154-163.

The socio-political aspects of the alternatives concept in research and toxicity testing is discussed, primarily from a US perspective. A history of the alternatives concept is provided, describing some of the events which occurred in Europe and the UK in the 1970s/1980s. British Home Office statistics on animal use, showing its decline from 1976, are included. The recent history of the debate over the alternatives concept in the US is discussed, including Congressional action, NIH attitudes, and the Draize campaign. Current attitudes toward alternatives in the US, and the issues surrounding their adoption and use in toxicity testing and in biomedical research, are presented.

Refinement of research techniques using animals will lead to less animal distress and, at the same time, will usually lead to higher quality and more robust data. For example, acclimation of laboratory animals to handling and experimental procedures will produce not only an animal that is easier to handle but also one that reacts to the experimental stimulus rather than to the handler. Even when the animal is acclimated to handling, handling or anesthesia can cause marked changes to commonly measured biological parameters such as serum hormone and tissue metabolite levels. Standard animal housing systems are also stressful to the animals. One research report, for example, found that mice in conventional facilities had plasma corticosterone values of 150–500 ng/ml compared to values below 35 ng/ml from mice kept in special “low-stress” housing. However, assessment of stress in animal research is not easy and few technicians or research scientists are good judges of moderate stress. Investigators in the United Kingdom have recently published a report on a new technique that might allow more objective assessment of discomfort in laboratory rats and mice. The amount of exploratory behavior in treated and control animals can be used for developing a Disturbance Index (DI). The DI is a measure of the extent to which a procedure or treatment causes a departure from normal behavior. The initial data using the DI indicate that it could be a promising approach for assessing animal well-being (or the lack of it).

The workshop objectives were to explore progress in implementing new, revised and alternative toxicological test methods across regulatory evaluation frameworks and decision-making programs in the United States, to identify barriers and to develop recommendations to further promote adoption of approaches that reduce, refine, or replace the use of animal methods. The workshop included sessions on: (1) current research, development, and validation of alternative methods within the U.S. federal government; (2) emerging alternative methodologies with potential applications to a broad spectrum of toxicity evaluation strategies; (3) tiered evaluation ("intelligent testing") strategies; and (4) identification of, and recommendations to address, critical barriers that affect adoption and use of new, revised alternative toxicological test methods by U.S. regulatory agencies. Through facilitated discussion, a list of barriers and recommendations were developed and grouped into categories of economic/financial, scientific/technical, and regulatory/policy. Overall, participants from all sectors collectively supported catalyzing actions to promote more meaningful and rapid progress for research to develop alternative methods focused for use in regulatory programs, accelerated lab investigations to validate such alternative methods and adoption of regulatory frameworks which embrace and incorporate these validated alternatives.