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SummaryDuring development, in the embryo proper blood cells emerge from a subset of specialized endothelial cells, named hemogenic endothelial cells (HECs), via a process known as endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition (EHT) driven by time-specific Notch signaling activation1. HECs represent an elusive cell population as they are rare and transient, rapidly generating blood cells, and specific markers are lacking. Therefore, it remains unclear how and when the hematopoietic fate is specified and how blood cell emergence is molecularly regulated. Notably, thorough characterization of this process is essential to guide the generation of therapeutic blood productsin vitrofrom human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). To identify specific human HEC markers, we performed transcriptomic analysis of 28-32-day human embryos, a developmental stage characterized by active hematopoiesis. We observed that the expression ofFCGR2B, encoding for the Fc receptor CD32, is highly enriched in the ACE+CD34+endothelial cell population that contains HECs. Functionalex vivoanalyses confirmed that multilineage hematopoietic potential is highly enriched in CD32+endothelial cells isolated from human embryos. In addition, clonal analysis revealed that 90% of CD32+hPSC-derived endothelial cells arebona fideHECs. We leveraged this specificity to study how HECs commit to the blood fate. Remarkably, our analyses indicated that HECs progress through different states culminating with the one identified by CD32 expression. Indeed CD32+HECs no longer require Notch to generate hematopoietic progeny and display full commitment to hematopoiesis even before the expression of hematopoietic markers. These findings provide a precise method for isolating HECs primed to the blood fate from human embryos and hPSC cultures, thus allowing the efficient generation of hematopoietic cellsin vitro.

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In the mouse, the first hematopoietic cells are generated in the yolk sac from the primitive, erythro-myeloid progenitor (EMP) and lymphoid programs that are specified before the emergence of hematopoietic stem cells. While many of the yolk sac–derived populations are transient, specific immune cell progeny seed developing tissues, where they function into adult life. To access the human equivalent of these lineages, we modeled yolk sac hematopoietic development using pluripotent stem cell differentiation. Here, we show that the combination of Activin A, BMP4, and FGF2 induces a population of KDR+CD235a/b+ mesoderm that gives rise to the spectrum of erythroid, myeloid, and T lymphoid lineages characteristic of the mouse yolk sac hematopoietic programs, including the Vδ2+ subset of γ/δ T cells that develops early in the human embryo. Through clonal analyses, we identified a multipotent hematopoietic progenitor with erythroid, myeloid, and T lymphoid potential, suggesting that the yolk sac EMP and lymphoid lineages may develop from a common progenitor.

Traditionally viewed as poorly plastic, neutrophils are now recognized as functionally diverse; however, the extent and determinants of neutrophil heterogeneity in humans remain unclear. We performed a comprehensive immunophenotypic and transcriptome analysis, at a bulk and single-cell level, of neutrophils from healthy donors and patients undergoing stress myelopoiesis upon exposure to growth factors, transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSC-T), development of pancreatic cancer and viral infection. We uncover an extreme diversity of human neutrophils in vivo, reflecting the rates of cell mobilization, differentiation and exposure to environmental signals. Integrated control of developmental and inducible transcriptional programs linked flexible granulopoietic outputs with elicitation of stimulus-specific functional responses. In this context, we detected an acute interferon (IFN) response in the blood of patients receiving HSC-T that was mirrored by marked upregulation of IFN-stimulated genes in neutrophils but not in monocytes. Systematic characterization of human neutrophil plasticity may uncover clinically relevant biomarkers and support the development of diagnostic and therapeutic tools. We thank S. Gregori and G. Amodio for help with neutrophil isolation and culture experiments; F. Di Salvo, F. Porzio and M. Tassara for patient recruitment and data management; the Center for Omics Sciences, the Flow cytometry Resource, Advanced Cytometry Technical Applications Laboratory, Centro Risorse Biologiche at Ospedale San Raffaele; and the Centro Universitario di Statistica per le Scienze Biomediche at Vita-Salute San Raffaele University. Figures were created with Adobe Illustrator and BioRender.com. V.B. and F.V.M. conducted this study as partial fulfillment of a PhD in Molecular Medicine (Basic and Applied Immunology and Oncology program) at Vita-Salute San Raffaele University. R.D.M. is a New York Stem Cell Foundation – Robertson Investigator. M.A.C. and P.S. are supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) (IG 20339) and the Italian Ministry of University and Research (PRIN 20177J4E75_004). A.A. is supported by the Italian Telethon Foundation (SR-Tiget grant award B02). E.M. and N.C. are supported by fellowships from Fondazione Umberto Veronesi. This study was supported by grants from the Italian Telethon Foundation (SR-Tiget grant award F04 to R.O.) and the Italian Ministry of Health (GR-201602362156 to R.O. and S.C.). Research in the R.O. laboratory is supported by the European Research Council (starting grant 759532, X-TAM) and by AIRC (MFAG 20247 and AIRC 5×1000 special program 22737) Sí

The generation of haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) is a major goal for regenerative medicine. During embryonic development, HSCs derive from haemogenic endothelium (HE) in a NOTCH- and retinoic acid (RA)-dependent manner. Although a WNT-dependent (WNTd) patterning of nascent hPSC mesoderm specifies clonally multipotent intra-embryonic-like HOXA

B1 lymphocytes are a small but unique component of the innate immune-like cells. However, their ontogenic origin is still a matter of debate. Although it is widely accepted that B1 cells originate early in fetal life, whether or not they arise from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) is still unclear. In order to shed light on the B1 cell origin, we set out to determine whether their lineage specification is dependent on Notch signaling, which is essential for the HSC generation and, therefore, all derivatives lineages. Using mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) to recapitulate murine embryonic development, we have studied the requirement for Notch signaling during the earliest B-cell lymphopoiesis and found that Rbpj-deficient mESCs are able to generate B1 cells. Their Notch independence was confirmed in ex vivo experiments using Rbpj-deficient embryos. In addition, we found that upregulation of Notch signaling induced the emergence of B2 lymphoid cells. Taken together, these findings indicate that control of Notch signaling dose is crucial for different B-cell lineage specification from endothelial cells and provides pivotal information for their in vitro generation from PSCs for therapeutic applications. This article has an associated ‘The people behind the papers’ interview., Summary: During development, the first B lymphocytes are produced in the absence of Notch signaling and, thus, independently from HSCs.

The in vitro generation from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) of different blood cell types, in particular those that are not replenished by hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) like fetal-derived tissue-resident macrophages and innate-like lymphocytes, is of a particular interest. In order to succeed in this endeavor, a thorough understanding of the pathway interplay promoting lineage specification for the different blood cell types is needed. Notch signaling is essential for the HSC generation and their derivatives, but its requirement for tissue-resident immune cells is unknown. Using mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) to recapitulate murine embryonic development, we have studied the requirement for Notch signaling during the earliest B-lymphopoiesis and found that Rbpj-deficient mESCs are able to generate B-1 cells. Their Notch-independence was confirmed in ex vivo experiments using Rbpj-deficient embryos. In addition, we found that upregulation of Notch signaling was needed for the emergence of B-2 lymphoid cells. Taken together, these findings indicate that control of Notch signaling dosage is critical for the different B-cell lineage specification and provides pivotal information for their in vitro generation from PSCs for therapeutic applications.

A variety of tissue lineages can be differentiated from pluripotent stem cells by mimicking embryonic development through stepwise exposure to morphogens, or by conversion of one differentiated cell type into another by enforced expression of master transcription factors. Here, to yield functional human haematopoietic stem cells, we perform morphogen-directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into haemogenic endothelium followed by screening of 26 candidate haematopoietic stem-cell-specifying transcription factors for their capacity to promote multi-lineage haematopoietic engraftment in mouse hosts. We recover seven transcription factors (ERG, HOXA5, HOXA9, HOXA10, LCOR, RUNX1 and SPI1) that are sufficient to convert haemogenic endothelium into haematopoietic stem and progenitor cells that engraft myeloid, B and T cells in primary and secondary mouse recipients. Our combined approach of morphogen-driven differentiation and transcription-factor-mediated cell fate conversion produces haematopoietic stem and progenitor cells from pluripotent stem cells and holds promise for modelling haematopoietic disease in humanized mice and for therapeutic strategies in genetic blood disorders.

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) provide an unparalleled opportunity to establish in vitro differentiation models that will transform our approach to the study of human development. In the case of the blood system, these models will enable investigation of the earliest stages of human embryonic haematopoiesis that was previously not possible. In addition, they will provide platforms for studying the origins of human blood cell diseases and for generating de novo haematopoietic stem and progenitor cell populations for cell-based regenerative therapies.

The generation of the hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) is a major goal for regenerative medicine. In the embryo, HSCs derive from a HOXA+ population known as hemogenic endothelium (HE) in a retinoic acid (RA)-dependent manner. Using hPSCs, we have previously identified a KDR+CD235a− mesodermal population that gives rise to a clonally multipotent HOXA+ definitive HE. However, this HE lacks HSC-like capacity in the absence of exogenous transgenes and is functionally unresponsive to RA treatment. Thus, the specification of an RA-dependent hematopoietic program from hPSCs has remained elusive. Through single cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) analyses, we identified that 2 distinct KDR+CD235a− populations exist prior to HE specification, distinguishable by CXCR4 expression. Interestingly, KDR+CD235a−CXCR4− mesoderm expressed CYP26A1, an RA degrading enzyme, and harbored definitive hematopoietic potential within hPSC differentiation cultures in the absence of RA signaling, indicating the HE specified from CXCR4− mesoderm as RA-independent (RAi). In sharp contrast, KDR+CD235a−CXCR4+ mesoderm exclusively expressed ALDH1A2, the key enzyme in the synthesis of RA, but lacked hematopoietic potential under the same culture conditions. However, the stage-specific application of RA signaling to CXCR4+ mesoderm resulted in the robust specification of CD34+HOXA+ HE with definitive erythroid, myeloid, and lymphoid hematopoietic potential, establishing this HE as RA-dependent (RAd). Furthermore, while RAi HE entirely failed to persist following murine hematopoietic xenografts, RAd HE transiently persisted within the peripheral blood and bone marrow of murine hosts. To assess whether these functionally distinct hPSC mesodermal progenitors are physiologically relevant to human embryonic development, we integrated scRNA-seq datasets from the hPSC mesodermal cultures and a gastrulating human embryo. These analyses revealed that in vivo, distinct KDR+CXCR4−CYP26A1+ and KDR+CXCR4+ALDH1A2+ populations can be found at the stage of emergent mesoderm, following patterning of nascent mesoderm. Additional comparison to later stage human embryos demonstrated that RAd HE has a more fetal-like HOXA expression pattern than RAi HE. Scoring of single fetal HE cells against hPSC-derived HE revealed that while some early fetal HE cells were similar to RAi HE, the late fetal HE cells, which are hypothesized to give rise to HSCs, were more similar to RAd HE. Lastly, as HSC-competent HE is expected to express arterial genes, we found a subset of late fetal HE with this phenotype that were exclusively similar to RAd HE. Collectively, these data represent the first ever characterization of RA-dependent hPSC-derived definitive hematopoiesis and its mesodermal progenitor. Additionally, we provide evidence for in vivo mesodermal and HE correlates for both RAi and RAd hematopoietic programs within human embryos. This novel insight into human hematopoietic development will serve as an important tool for modeling development and ultimately provide the basis for de novo specification of HSCs. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Autoimmune disorders (ADs) arise from deregulated self-reactive immune response. Currently, little is known about ADs’ pathogenesis. To investigate the cell of origin of ADs, we exploited the context of Omenn Syndrome (OS), a genetic disease due to hypomorphic mutations in genes involved in V(d)J recombination. This leads to the paradigmatic coexistence of immunodeficiency and autoimmunity, offering the unparalleled platform to study AD onset in absence of the adaptive immune system. In OS patients, the autoreactive T-cells triggering trigger the typical autoimmune inflammation in the skin and intestine show a highly conserved and restricted TCR usage. This and other peculiar features of OS T-cells closely resemble those of the first lymphocytes emerging before and independently from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Therefore, we speculated that OS autoreactive T-cells are mostly generated in the embryo independently from HSCs. To address this hypothesis, we isolated E9.5 embryonic hematopoietic progenitors as well as adult HSCs from both wild-type (wt) and the RAG2R229Q OS mice and analyzed their T-lymphoid potential. While both wt E9.5 cells and adult HSCs can differentiate in CD3+ T-cells in vitro, only embryonic progenitors can generate CD3+ cells in OS setting. Of note, fetal reprogramming of OS adult HSCs by Lin28 ectopic expression rescued their lymphoid potential. Similarly, differentiation of patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells shows that human embryonic lymphoid progenitors with OS mutations can generate CD3+ cells, thus supporting our hypothesis. Our studies describe the previously unappreciated contribution of embryonic progenitors to the pool of autoimmune lymphocytes, providing a platform for both the detailed study of human AD and the design of more targeted therapies.

The generation of the hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) is a major goal for regenerative medicine. In the embryo, HSCs derive from a HOXA+ population known as hemogenic endothelium (HE) in a retinoic acid (RA)-dependent manner. Using hPSCs, we have previously identified a KDR+CD235a- mesodermal population that gives rise to a clonally multipotent definitive HE. However, this HE lacks HSC-like capacity in the absence of exogenous transgenes, and is functionally unresponsive to RA treatment. Thus, the specification of a RA-dependent hematopoietic program from hPSCs has remained elusive. Through single cell RNAseq analyses, we identified that two distinct KDR+CD235a- populations exist prior to HE specification, distinguishable by CXCR4 expression. Interestingly, CYP26A1, a RA degrading enzyme, was expressed in KDR+CD235a-CXCR4- mesoderm, and this was the only mesodermal population harboring definitive hematopoietic potential. In sharp contrast, KDR+CD235a-CXCR4+ mesoderm expressed ALDH1A2, a key enzyme in the synthesis of RA and lacked any hematopoietic potential. However, the stage-specific application of retinoic acid signaling to this CXCR4+ mesodermal population resulted in the robust specification of CD34+ HE with multi-lineage definitive erythroid, myeloid and lymphoid hematopoietic potential. Further, in vivo correlates to these functionally-distinct mesodermal precursors could be found within a scRNA-seq dataset of gastrulating murine embryos. Additional comparison to human embryos demonstrated that CD34+ cells specified with retinol from CXCR4+ mesoderm have fetal-like HOXA expression. Collectively, this represents the first ever characterization of stage-specific RA-dependent hPSC-derived definitive hematopoiesis, and its mesodermal progenitor. This novel insight into human hematopoietic development will ultimately provide the basis for the de novo specification of HSCs.

The generation of haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) will depend on the accurate recapitulation of embryonic haematopoiesis. In the early embryo, HSCs develop from the haemogenic endothelium (HE) and are specified in a Notch-dependent manner through a process named endothelial-to-haematopoietic transition (EHT). As HE is associated with arteries, it is assumed that it represents a subpopulation of arterial vascular endothelium (VE). Here we demonstrate at a clonal level that hPSC-derived HE and VE represent separate lineages. HE is restricted to the CD34(+)CD73(-)CD184(-) fraction of day 8 embryoid bodies and it undergoes a NOTCH-dependent EHT to generate RUNX1C(+) cells with multilineage potential. Arterial and venous VE progenitors, in contrast, segregate to the CD34(+)CD73(med)CD184(+) and CD34(+)CD73(hi)CD184(-) fractions, respectively. Together, these findings identify HE as distinct from VE and provide a platform for defining the signalling pathways that regulate their specification to functional HSCs.

The generation of the hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) is a major goal for regenerative medicine. In the embryo, HSCs derive from a HOXA+ population known as hemogenic endothelium (HE) in a retinoic acid (RA)-dependent manner. Using hPSCs, we have previously identified a KDR+CD235a- mesodermal population that gives rise to a clonally multipotent definitive HE. However, this HE lacks HSC-like capacity in the absence of exogenous transgenes, and is functionally unresponsive to RA treatment. Thus, the specification of a RA-dependent hematopoietic program from hPSCs has remained elusive. Through single cell RNAseq analyses, we identified that hPSC-derived hematopoietic mesoderm is actually comprised of three distinct KDR+ populations, distinguishable by CD235a and CXCR4 expression, prior to HE specification. Interestingly, CYP26A1, a RA degrading enzyme, was expressed in KDR+CD235a-CXCR4- mesoderm, and this was the only mesodermal population harboring definitive hematopoietic potential. In sharp contrast, KDR+CD235a-CXCR4+ mesoderm expressed ALDH1A2, a key enzyme in the synthesis of RA. When assessed for hematopoietic potential, this population completely lacked any hematopoietic activity. However, the brief, stage-specific application of retinol or all-trans retinoic acid to this CXCR4+ mesodermal population resulted in the robust specification of CD34+ HE with multi-lineage definitive erythroid, myeloid and lymphoid hematopoietic potential. Further, these CD34+ cells have fetal-like HOXA expression. Collectively, this represents the first ever characterization of stage-specific RA-dependent hPSC-derived definitive hematopoiesis, and its mesodermal progenitor. This novel insight into human hematopoietic development will ultimately provide the basis for the de novo specification of HSCs.

SummaryThe efficient generation of hematopoietic stem cells from human pluripotent stem cells is dependent on the appropriate specification of the definitive hematopoietic program during differentiation. In this study, we used T lymphocyte potential to track the onset of definitive hematopoiesis from human embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells differentiated with specific morphogens in serum- and stromal-free cultures. We show that this program develops from a progenitor population with characteristics of hemogenic endothelium, including the expression of CD34, VE-cadherin, GATA2, LMO2, and RUNX1. Along with T cells, these progenitors display the capacity to generate myeloid and erythroid cells. Manipulation of Activin/Nodal signaling during early stages of differentiation revealed that development of the definitive hematopoietic progenitor population is not dependent on this pathway, distinguishing it from primitive hematopoiesis. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that it is possible to generate T lymphoid progenitors from pluripotent stem cells and that this lineage develops from a population whose emergence marks the onset of human definitive hematopoiesis.

Human adenylate kinase 2 deficiency causes the most profound human haematopoietic defect associated with sensorineural deafness. Reticular dysgenesis (RD) is an autosomal recessive form of human severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) characterized by an early differentiation block in the myeloid lineage and a profound impairment in lymphoid maturation associated with bilateral sensorineural deafness. The lack of polymorphonuclear neutrophils in affected newborns is responsible for the occurrence of severe infections earlier than usually observed in the other forms of SCID. Furthermore, RD associated neutropenia is characterized by the lack of responsiveness to G-CSF. We have identified bi-allelic mutations in the adenylate kinase 2 (AK2) gene is seven patients affected with RD. These mutations resulted in the absence or a strong decrease in protein expression. Restoration of AK2 expression in the bone marrow cells of RD patients overcomes the neutrophil differentiation arrest, underlying its specific requirement in the development of a restricted set of haematopoietic lineages. Lastly, we established that AK2 is specifically expressed in the stria vascularis region of the inner ear. The function of this gene in the differentiation of a given set of cell lineages is rapidly in progress, showing that studies of primary immunodeficiencies continue to provide key information on human lympho-haematopoietic development. Moreover the AK2 enzyme seems a key molecule in different biological systems such as the lympho-haematopoiesis and the brain development.

The generation of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) remains a major goal for regenerative medicine and disease modeling. However, hPSC differentiation cultures produce mostly hematopoietic progenitors belonging to the embryonic HSC-independent hematopoietic program, which may not be relevant or accurate for modeling normal and disease-state adult hematopoietic processes. Through a stage-specific directed differentiation approach, it is now possible to generate exclusively definitive hematopoietic progenitors from hPSCs showing characteristics of the more developmentally advanced fetal hematopoiesis. Here, we summarize recent efforts at generating hPSC-derived definitive hematopoiesis through embryoid body differentiation under defined conditions. Embryoid bodies are generated through enzymatic dissociation of hPSCs from matrigel-coated plasticware, followed by recombinant BMP4, driving mesoderm specification. Definitive hematopoiesis is specified by a GSK3β-inhibitor, followed by recombinant VEGF and supportive hematopoietic cytokines. The CD34+ cells obtained using this method are then suitable for hematopoietic assays for definitive hematopoietic potential.

A variety of tissues can be differentiated from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) in vitro through stepwise exposure to morphogens, or by conversion of one differentiated cell type into another by enforced expression of master transcription factors (TFs). Despite considerable effort, neither approach has yielded functional human hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Building upon recent evidence that HSCs derive from definitive hemogenic endothelium (HE), we performed morphogen-directed differentiation of human PSCs into HE followed by screening of 26 candidate HSC-specifying TFs for the capacity to promote multi-lineage hematopoietic engraftment in irradiated immune deficient murine hosts. From genomic PCR of engrafted cells, we recovered seven TFs (ERG, HOXA5, HOXA9, HOXA10, LCOR, RUNX1, SPI1) that were sufficient to convert HE into hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) that engraft GLY-A+ erythrocytes, CD33+ myeloid, CD15+ CD31+ neutrophils, CD19+ IgM+ B and CD3+ T cells in primary and secondary murine recipients for 12-14 weeks. Limiting dilution analysis indicated that the frequency of repopulating cells generated by this method was 1 in 4,707-15,029, lower than the frequency in CD34+ cord blood cells (1 in 1,819-5,173). Functional characterization of terminally differentiated cells demonstrated features of definitive erythropoiesis (expression of adult beta globin and enucleation). Engrafted neutrophils responded to cytokine stimuli by activation of myeloperoxidase. Human IgM and IgG could be detected in the serum of engrafted mice, and titers of ovalbumin specific antibody increased in response to protein immunization, indicating boostable immunity. T-cells responded to PMA/Ionomycin stimuli by activation of IFNγ, and sequencing of the T cell receptor revealed a broad clonotype diversity. Proviral integration analysis demonstrated derivation of myeloid and lymphoid progeny from common clones in secondary animals, indicating generation of self-renewing, multipotential HSC-like cells from PSCs. Mechanistically, the seven TFs induced HOXA target genes (LMO2, SOX4, MEIS1 and ID2); upregulated expression of homing-related genes (CXCR4, VLA5 and S1PR1); and enhanced the endothelial to hematopoietic transition (EHT), as indicated by a 2.4-fold induction of a RUNX1c-reporter. Our combined approach of morphogen-driven differentiation and TF-mediated cell fate conversion produced HSPCs from PSCs that hold promise for modeling hematopoietic disease in humanized mice and for therapeutic strategies in genetic blood disorders. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

Satellite cells (SCs) represent a distinct lineage of myogenic progenitors responsible for the postnatal growth, repair and maintenance of skeletal muscle. Distinguished on the basis of their unique position in mature skeletal muscle, SCs were considered unipotent stem cells with the ability of generating a unique specialized phenotype. Subsequently, it was demonstrated in mice that opposite differentiation towards osteogenic and adipogenic pathways was also possible. Even though the pool of SCs is accepted as the major, and possibly the only, source of myonuclei in postnatal muscle, it is likely that SCs are not all multipotent stem cells and evidences for diversities within the myogenic compartment have been described both in vitro and in vivo. Here, by isolating single fibers from rat flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) muscle we were able to identify and clonally characterize two main subpopulations of SCs: the low proliferative clones (LPC) present in major proportion (approximately 75%) and the high proliferative clones (HPC), present instead in minor amount (approximately 25%). LPC spontaneously generate myotubes whilst HPC differentiate into adipocytes even though they may skip the adipogenic program if co-cultured with LPC. LPC and HPC differ also for mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)), ATP balance and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation underlying diversities in metabolism that precede differentiation. Notably, SCs heterogeneity is retained in vivo. SCs may therefore be comprised of two distinct, though not irreversibly committed, populations of cells distinguishable for prominent differences in basal biological features such as proliferation, metabolism and differentiation. By these means, novel insights on SCs heterogeneity are provided and evidences for biological readouts potentially relevant for diagnostic purposes described.

We have isolated c-Kit+Lin− cells from both human and murine amniotic fluid (AF) and investigated their hematopoietic potential. In vitro, the c-Kit+Lin− population in both species displayed a multilineage hematopoietic potential, as demonstrated by the generation of erythroid, myeloid, and lymphoid cells. In vivo, cells belonging to all 3 hematopoietic lineages were found after primary and secondary transplantation of murine c-Kit+Lin− cells into immunocompromised hosts, thus demonstrating the ability of these cells to self-renew. Gene expression analysis of c-Kit+ cells isolated from murine AF confirmed these results. The presence of cells with similar characteristics in the surrounding amnion indicates the possible origin of AF c-Kit+Lin− cells. This is the first report showing that cells isolated from the AF do have hematopoietic potential; our results support the idea that AF may be a new source of stem cells for therapeutic applications.

It is known that the bone marrow (BM) CD133(+) cells play an important role in the hematopoietic compartment, but this is not their only role. The cells indeed can take part in vascular reconstitution when they become endothelial cells (EC), in skeletal muscle fiber regeneration when there is a switch in muscle precursors, and to cardiomyocyte phenotypic conversion when differentiating in cardiomyocytes-like cells. While the role in hematopoiesis and vasculogenesis of the selected cells is well established, their ability to differentiate along multiple non-EC lineages has not yet been fully elucidated. The goal of this study is to assert whether human CD133(+)BM-derived cells are able to differentiate in vitro, besides to blood cells, cell lineages pertinent to the mesoderm germ layers. To this end, we isolated CD133(+) cells using a clinically approved methodology and compared their differentiation potential to that of hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) obtained from the same BM samples. In our culture conditions, CD133 expression was consistently decreased after passage 2, as well as the expression of the stemness markers c-kit and OCT4, whereas expression of Stage Specific Embryonic Antigen 4 (SSEA4) remained consistent in all different conditions. Expanded CD133 were also positive for HLA-ABC, but negative for HLA-DR, in accordance with what has been previously reported for MSCs. Moreover, CD133(+) cells from human BM demonstrated a wide range of differentiation potential, encompassing not only mesodermal but also ectodermal (neurogenic) cell lineages. CD133 antigen could be potentially used to select a cell population with similar characteristics as MSCs for therapeutic applications.

Antisense-mediated exon skipping holds great potential for the treatment of DMD. In mdx mice, functional recovery of skeletal muscle has been obtained upon systemic delivery of ‘‘naked” oligonucleotides or viral vectors encoding for antisense snRNAs. However, amongst the studies reported so far, which used either neonatal or young adult animals – only one achieved dystrophin restoration in cardiac muscle, using an adeno-associated vector. Here we report the in vivo delivery of morpholino oligos in aged mdx mice, both in skeletal muscle, via intra-arterial injection, and in cardiac muscle, via intra-muscular injection. Localized intra-arterial delivery yielded high levels of dystrophin restoration and just two doses of 100 lg each resulted into detectable force recovery in the EDL muscles of treated limbs. On the other hand, upon intra-cardiac injections in the left ventricle wall the skipping effect was much lower than what obtained in tibialis anterior muscles injected with comparable amounts of oligos. This latter finding suggests that even upon direct delivery antisensemediated dystrophin restoration in cardiac muscle might suffer from limitations that do not exist in skeletal muscle. 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Abstract 1475 Poster Board I-498 We have recently described the hematopoietic potential of ckit+ Lin- cells from the murine and human amniotic fluid (1). These cells were able to generate all types of blood cells in vitro and as far as mice are concerned, to generate a complete hematopoietic system once transplanted to immunodeficient recipients. This strong hematopoietic potential was accompanied by a molecular signature measured by unicellular RT-PCR, characteristic of fetal hematopoietic progenitors. Indeed coexpression of Gata2, Lmo2 and Aml1 was found in 28% of ckit+Lin- AF cells. Intriguingly, murine ckit+Lin- AF cells can be subdivided into two fractions depending on the level of ckit expression (low or high). In in vitro assays, we demonstrated that hematopoietic potential was strictly restricted to the ckit high expressing fraction. The expansion of these cells would have great impact even in the clinical field as AF could be seen as a source of transplantable hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Many of the early studies that documented some expansion ability of HSCs included fetal calf serum in the protocol. Given the poorly defined combination of factors in serum and the variability between different serum lots, these protocols were often difficult to reproduce. Serum-free media supplied with specific inducers have been shown to bring several advances in driving direct differentiation of embryonic stem cells. Murine AF Lin-ckitlo and ckithi were cultured in serum- and feeder layer-free culture conditions. Lin-ckitlo AF cells died within a few days. Conversely, Lin-ckithi AF cells were maintained for up to 6 weeks, with a proliferation rate of more than 100 during the first three weeks. Their phenotype remained stable, ckithi CD45+ and Lin-. The hematopoietic potential tested in methylcellulose assays showed an increased frequency of mixed CFU-GEMM (from 24% to 84%). In vivo, CFU-S12 composed of erythroid, myeloid and Lin-ckit+Sca1+ progenitor cells were observed after the injection of AF ckithi in lethally irradiated recipients. Gene expression profile analyzed by single cell multiplex RT-PCR analysis correlated with the in vitro and in vivo results of differentiation. LMO2 was coexpressed with Gata2 and Aml1 in 66% of expanded cells, demonstrating the maintenance of an overall pattern of expression. Collectively, our results indicate that the hematopoietic potential of AF resides in the ckithi fraction and that these cells can be expanded in serum-free condition for prolonged periods of time without reduction of their hematopoietic potential. This strongly supports the idea that AF may be an excellent source of cells for therapeutic applications. 1. Ditadi 2009 Disclosures: No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

SummaryHematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) develop from a specialized subpopulation of endothelial cells known as hemogenic endothelium (HE). Although the HE origin of HSCs is now well established in different species, the signaling pathways that control this transition remain poorly understood. Here, we show that activation of retinoic acid (RA) signaling in aorta-gonad-mesonephros-derived HE ex vivo dramatically enhanced its HSC potential, whereas conditional inactivation of the RA metabolizing enzyme retinal dehydrogenase 2 in VE-cadherin expressing endothelial cells in vivo abrogated HSC development. Wnt signaling completely blocked the HSC inductive effects of RA modulators, whereas inhibition of the pathway promoted the development of HSCs in the absence of RA signaling. Collectively, these findings position RA and Wnt signaling as key regulators of HSC development and in doing so provide molecular insights that will aid in developing strategies for their generation from pluripotent stem cells.

Primitive erythropoiesis defines the onset of hematopoiesis in the yolk sac of the early embryo and is initiated by the emergence of progenitors assayed as colony-forming cells (EryP-CFCs). EryP-CFCs are detected for only a narrow window during embryonic development, suggesting that both their initiation and termination are tightly controlled. Using the embryonic stem differentiation system to model primitive erythropoiesis, we found that miR-126 regulates the termination of EryP-CFC development. Analyses of miR-126 null embryos revealed that this miR also regulates EryP-CFCs in vivo. We identified () expressed by a mesenchymal cell population as a relevant target of miR-126. Interaction of EryP-CFCs with Vcam-1 accelerated their maturation to ßh1-globin and Ter119 cells through a Src family kinase. These findings uncover a cell nonautonomous regulatory pathway for primitive erythropoiesis that may provide insight into the mechanism(s) controlling the developmental switch from primitive to definitive hematopoiesis.► Primitive erythropoiesis is a tightly regulated developmental program ► miR-126 regulates EryP colony-forming cell (CFC) potential both in vitro and in vivo ► miR-126 regulates mesenchymal Vcam-1, which controls EryP-CFC cell nonautonomously ► Vcam-1 represses EryP-CFC by inducing maturation to erythroblasts via a Src kinase

New insights into hemogenic endothelium will facilitate efforts to produce hematopoietic stem cells in vitro.