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Background The main objective of this study was to evaluate physiological and quality changes of minimally processed broccoli sprouts illuminated during postharvest storage under blue, red and far-red LED lighting as compared to darkness or illumination with fluorescent light, as control treatments. Results Morphological and microbiological changes were determined during 15 days at 5 °C. In addition, total antioxidant activity and bioactive compound changes throughout the shelf life were also monitored. Results showed that far-red LED lighting increased hypocotyl and sprout length, decreased microbial growth and improved the total antioxidant and scavenging activities, compared to darkness and fluorescent lighting treatments. However, it did not stimulate the biosynthesis of phenolic acids. In contrast, blue LED light reduced by 50% the total antioxidant capacity of broccoli sprouts compared to far-red treatment, as well as morphological development. In addition, total scavenging activity was increased under far-red LED light compared with the other treatments by 12-10% (darkness and fluorescence) and 33-31% (blue and red LEDs). Conclusions Our results suggest that minimally processed sprouts may benefit from LED lighting during shelf life in terms of quality, although further experiments should be conducted to optimize a proper exposure cycle and intensity aiming for use in the distribution chain. The results also open the way for further development towards the integration of this technology in the food distribution chain.

In Vertical Farms with Artificial Lighting (VFALs), optimal light management is a crucial determinant of both economic and environmental viability. Applications of LED technologies to plant cultivation are still recent, and research has to date mainly targeted the definition of optimal spectral and light intensity features. On the other hand, despite the relevant implications on production costs, literature on optimal photoperiod management is to date limited. Indeed, the number of hours per day correlates with the total light supplied to the crop - expressed as Daily Light Integral (DLI) - and the associated energetic costs. The present study aims at defining how photoperiods of 16 h d-1 (DLI= 14.4 mol m-2 d-1), 20 h d-1 (DLI= 18 mol m-2 d-1) and 24 h d-1 (DLI= 21.6 mol m-2 d-1)of light affect growth performances and resource use efficiency in leafy vegetables and herbs, represented by lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), rocket (Eruca sativa Mill.), and chicory (Cichorium intybus L.). Plants were cultivated indoor under a red (R) and blue (B) LED light (RB=3, photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD)=250 µmol m-2 s-1). Photoperiod variations’ effects differed according to the considered plant species. In lettuce and chicory, the adoption of a DLI of 14.4 mol m-2 d-1 at 16 h d-1 photoperiod resulted in a greater plants fresh biomass and leaf area, which also contributed to generally obtain higher energy use efficiency (fresh biomass per unit of electricity input), light use efficiency (dry biomass per unit of light input) and, in chicory, also water use efficiency (fresh biomass per liter of water consumed). Contrarily, although photoperiod variations did not affect basil and rocket growth parameters (e.g., fresh biomass and leaf area) and the plant capacity to transform resources (e.g., water use efficiency and light use efficiency), energy use efficiency in basil also presented a downward trend in response to growing DLI. Accordingly, the adoption of a DLI of 14.4 mol m-2 d-1 at 16 h d-1 photoperiod resulted to be the optimal option among the ones tested in the presented research. The research leading to this publication has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 862663. The publication reflects the authors views . The research Executive Agency (REA) is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.

The present work aims to explore the potential to improve quality of purslane microgreens by combining water salinity and LED lighting during their cultivation. Purslane plants were grown in a growth chamber with light insulated compartments, under different lighting sources on a 16 h d􀀀1 photoperiod—fluorescent lamps (FL) and two LED treatments, including a red and blue (RB)) spectrum and a red, blue and far red (RB+IR) LED lights spectrum—while providing all of them a light intensity of 150 _mol m􀀀2 s􀀀1. Plants were exposed to two salinity treatments, by adding 0 or 80 mM NaCl. Biomass, cation and anions, total phenolics (TPC) and flavonoids content (TFC), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total chlorophylls (Chl) and carotenoids content (Car) and fatty acids were determined. The results showed that yield was increased by 21% both in RB and RB+FR lights compared to FL and in salinity compared to non-salinity conditions. The nitrate content was reduced by 81% and 91% when microgreens were grown under RB and RB+FR, respectively, as compared to FL light, and by 9.5% under saline conditions as compared with non-salinity conditions. The lowest oxalate contents were obtained with the combinations of RB or RB+FR lighting and salinity. The content of Cl and Na in the leaves were also reduced when microgreens were grown under RB and RB+FR lights under saline conditions. Microgreens grown under RB light reached the highest TPC, while salinity reduced TFC, Chl and Car. Finally, the fatty acid content was not affected by light or salinity, but these factors slightly influenced their composition. It is concluded that the use of RB and RB+FR lights in saline conditions is of potential use in purslane microgreens production, since it improves the yield and quality of the product, reducing the content of anti-nutritional compounds. This project was financed by the Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia nº 20849/PI/18 through the grant call for projects for the development of scientific and technical research by competitive groups, included in the Regional Programme for the Promotion of Scientific and Technical Research (Action Plan 2018) of the Seneca Foundation-Science and Technology Agency of the Region of Murcia (Spain). The research also received funding from the Italian Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies (MIPAAF), in the framework of the project “Light on Shelf Life” (CUP J56J20000410008). The elaboration of the manuscript was supported by a grant from the Fundación Séneca (reference 20555/IV/18, Call for Fellowships for Guest Researcher Stays at Universities and OPIS of the Region of Murcia) awarded to Francesco Orsini.

In indoor vertical farms, energy consumption represents a bottleneck for both a system’s affordability and environmental footprint. Although switching frequency (sf) represents a crucial factor in determining the efficacy of light emitting diodes (LED) lighting systems in converting electricity into light, the impact of sf is still underexplored. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of LEDs sf on the productive and qualitative responses of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), also considering the resource use efficiency. Plants were grown for 14 days under red and blue LEDs (215 μmol m−2 s−1 and 16/8 h light/dark, with a red:blue ratio of 3) characterized by two different sf for the blue diode, namely high sf (850 kHz) and low sf (293 kHz). A fluorescent light (same light intensity and photoperiod) was included. LED sf did not alter plant morphological parameters, including fresh or dry biomass, leaf number, leaf area, or water use efficiency. A low sf increased the energy use efficiency (EUE) by 40% as compared to high sf. The latter enhanced the leaf antioxidant capacity, as a consequence of increased concentrations of caftaric and chicoric acids, isoquercetin, and luteolin, consistent with the upregulation of a few genes related to the biosynthetic pathway of phenolic compounds (4C3H and DFR). The study highlights that different sf may significantly affect the EUE as well as crop nutritional properties.

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the physiological and quality changes of fresh-cut red chard (Beta vulgaris) and rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia) leaves illuminated during storage with monochromatic light emitting diode (LED) lamps, featuring different spectral component (red, green, yellow, white, blue and far-red) and same light intensity (35 μmol m−2 s-1). As control, storage in darkness was assayed. Biomass, colorimetric and microbiological changes were determined up to 10 d of storage at 5 °C. In addition, total antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds changes along the shelf-life were also monitored. Microbial counts were reduced by yellow and blue light in red chard, and by yellow and green light in rocket. Green and white light enabled to preserve colorimetric indexes and chlorophylls content mostly in rocket and, eventually, increasing carotenoids in red chard. Total antioxidant capacity and total phenols content were stimulated in response to red or blue light application for both species. On the other hand, LED light supply increased weight losses during storage as compared to darkness, although more limitedly in response to yellow and far red light. The study provides solid ground for further exploration on how LED lighting treatment during storage of red chard and rocket may foster product qualitative properties, suggesting that different spectral wavebands may alternatively enhance antioxidant properties and reduce microbiological risks.

Unidad de excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2019-000940-M The COVID-19 pandemic unveiled the fragility of food sovereignty in cities and confirmed the close connection urban dwellers have with food. Although the pandemic was not responsible for a systemic failure, it suggested how citizens would accept and indeed support a transition toward more localized food production systems. As this attitudinal shift is aligned with the sustainability literature, this work aims to explore the tools and actions needed for a policy framework transformation that recognizes the multiple benefits of food systems, while considering local needs and circumstances. This perspective paper reviews the trends in production and consumption, and systematizes several impacts emerged across European food systems in response to the first wave of pandemic emergency, with the final aim of identifying challenges and future strategies for research and innovation toward the creation of resilient and sustainable city/region food systems. The proposal does not support a return to traditional small-scale economies that might not cope with the growing global population. It instead stands to reconstruct and upscale such connections using a "think globally act locally" mind-set, engaging local communities, and making existing and future citizen-led food system initiatives more sustainable. The work outlines a set of recommended actions for policy-makers: support innovative and localized food production, training and use of information and communication technology for food production and distribution; promote cross-pollination among city/region food systems; empower schools as agents of change in food provision and education about food systems; and support the development of assessment methodologies and the application of policy tools to ensure that the different sustainability dimensions of the food chain are considered.

Nowadays, literature is still limited on the effects that LEDs may trigger during postharvest. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of continuous monochromatic Yellow or Green light on total and individual phenolic and glucosinolate content of 9-day broccoli sprouts stored up to 15 days at 5 °C as a ready-to-eat product. In addition, a broad-spectrum White LED light, a Fluorescent light and storage in Darkness were used as treatments. An improvement in the total phenolic content (TPC) of 15 % and 13 % was observed under Yellow and White LED lighting, respectively, throughout the shelf-life as compared to Darkness. While Green LEDs did not affect the TPC, an increase of 34.5 % on the total glucosinolate content (TGC) was associated to this treatment on day 4. The highest increase of the TGC was observed under Yellow lighting (77 %, compared to Darkness). In contrast, Fluorescent and Darkness did not affect the TPC, but reduced the TGC (69 and 62 % compared to values at harvest, respectively). Our study demonstrates that a postharvest Yellow LED lighting stimulates the TPC and the TGC accumulation, opening the way for its further applications along the shelf life of other horticultural commodities.

In Northern Europe, the use of light&ndash, emitting diodes (LEDs) is widely adopted in protected horticulture, enabling to enhance plant growth by ensuring needed radiative fluxes throughout seasons. Contrarily, the use of artificial lighting in Mediterranean greenhouse still finds limited applications. In this study, the effects of supplemental LED interlighting on vegetative development, fruit growth, yield, and fruit quality of high-wire tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L. cv. &lsquo, Siranzo&rsquo, ) during spring and summer season were addressed in a hydroponic greenhouse in Italy. Plants were either grown under natural solar radiation (control), or by adding supplemental LED interlighting. LED treatment featured red (R) and blue (B) light (RB ratio of 3) and a photosynthetic photon flux density of 170 &micro, mol m&minus, 2 s&minus, 1 for 16 h d&minus, 1. Supplemental LED interlighting enhanced yield as a result of increased fruit weight and dimension. While no effects on soluble solids content and fruit color at harvesting were observed, supplemental LED interlighting accelerated ripening by one week in spring and two weeks in summer and this also resulted in increased cumulated productivity (+16%) as compared to control treatment. Overall, supplemental LED interlighting can represent a feasible technology for tomato greenhouse production also in the Mediterranean region.

Indoor farming systems are claimed to improve plant resource use efficiency (including water) as compared to traditional growing systems. However, electricity costs associated with plant lighting are still limiting the growth of the sector. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) may provide elevate electricity use-efficiency, while also allowing for adjusting light spectral properties to the plant needs. The goal of this study is to identify the role played by red:blue (RB) ratio on the water and energy resource use efficiency of indoor basil cultivation, linking the light physiological response to changes in yield. Basil plants were cultivated in growth chamber under LED lights supplying 5 different RB ratio regimens (respectively, RB0.5, RB1, RB2, RB3, and RB4) and against fluorescent lamps as control (FL1). In all treatments light supplied provided a PPFD of 215 μmol m-2 s-1 and a photoperiod of 16 h of light per day. Greater biomass production was associated with LEDs lighting as compared with fluorescent lamp, with best performances observed using RB≥2. Adoption of RB2 and RB3 improved also the plant's capacity to transform resources, resulting in greatest energy use efficiency. Decreasing RB ratio increased leaf stomatal conductance, therefore leading to low water use efficiency under RB

LED lighting in indoor farming systems allows to modulate the spectrum to fit plant needs. Red (R) and blue (B) lights are often used, being highly active for photosynthesis. The effect of R and B spectral components on lettuce plant physiology and biochemistry and resource use efficiency were studied. Five red:blue (RB) ratios (0.5-1-2-3-4) supplied by LED and a fluorescent control (RB = 1) were tested in six experiments in controlled conditions (PPFD = 215 μmol m−2 s−1, daylength 16 h). LED lighting increased yield (1.6 folds) and energy use efficiency (2.8 folds) as compared with fluorescent lamps. Adoption of RB = 3 maximised yield (by 2 folds as compared with RB = 0.5), also increasing leaf chlorophyll and flavonoids concentrations and the uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium. As the red portion of the spectrum increased, photosystem II quantum efficiency decreased but transpiration decreased more rapidly, resulting in increased water use efficiency up to RB = 3 (75 g FW L−1 H2O). The transpiration decrease was accompanied by lower stomatal conductance, which was associated to lower stomatal density, despite an increased stomatal size. Both energy and land surface use efficiency were highest at RB ≥ 3. We hereby suggest a RB ratio of 3 for sustainable indoor lettuce cultivation.

Notwithstanding that indoor farming is claimed to reduce the environmental pressures of food systems, electricity needs are elevated and mainly associated with lighting. To date, however, no studies have quantified the environmental and economic profile of Light Emitting Diodes (LED) lighting in indoor farming systems. The goal of this study is to quantify the effect of varying the red (R) and blue (B) LED spectral components (RB ratios of 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4) on the eco-effciency of indoor production of lettuce, chicory, rocket and sweet basil from a life cycle perspective. The functional unit of the assessment was 1 kg of harvested fresh plant edible product, and the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) method was employed for impact assessment. Even though most of the materials of the LED lamp and electronic elements were imported from long distances (14,400 km), electricity consumption was the largest contributor to the environmental impacts (with the LED lamps being the main electricity consumers, approximately 70%), apart from the resources use indicator, where the materials of the lamps and the mineral nutrients were also relevant. RB0.5 was the most energy-effcient light treatment but had the lowest eco-effciency scores due to the lower crop yields. This project received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 708672. The elaboration of the manuscript was also supported by a grant from the Fundacion Séneca (reference 20555/IV/18, Call for Fellowships for Guest Researcher Stays at Universities and OPIS of the Region of Murcia) awarded to Francesco Orsini.

Indoor plant cultivation can result in significantly improved resource use efficiency (surface, water, and nutrients) as compared to traditional growing systems, but illumination costs are still high. LEDs (light emitting diodes) are gaining attention for indoor cultivation because of their ability to provide light of different spectra. In the light spectrum, red and blue regions are often considered the major plants' energy sources for photosynthetic CO2 assimilation. This study aims at identifying the role played by red:blue (R:B) ratio on the resource use efficiency of indoor basil cultivation, linking the physiological response to light to changes in yield and nutritional properties. Basil plants were cultivated in growth chambers under five LED light regimens characterized by different R:B ratios ranging from 0.5 to 4 (respectively, RB0.5, Ra-1, RB2, RB3, and RB4), using fluorescent lamps as control (CK1). A photosynthetic photon flux density of 215 mu mol m(-2) s(-1) was provided for 16 h per day. The greatest biomass production was associated with LED lighting as compared with fluorescent lamp. Despite a reduction in both stomatal conductance and PSII quantum efficiency, adoption of RB3 resulted in higher yield and chlorophyll content, leading to improved use efficiency for water and energy. Antioxidant activity followed a spectral-response function, with optimum associated with RB3. A low RB ratio (0.5) reduced the relative content of several volatiles, as compared to CK1 and RB >= 2. Moreover, mineral leaf concentration (g g(-1) DW) and total content in plant (g plant(-1)) were influences by light quality, resulting in greater N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe accumulation in plants cultivated with RB3. Contrarily, nutrient use efficiency was increased in RB

Indoor plant cultivation systems are gaining increasing popularity because of their ability to meet the needs of producing food in unfavourable climatic contexts and in urban environments, allowing high yield, high quality, and great efficiency in the use of resources such as water and nutrients. While light is one of the most important environmental factors affecting plant development and morphology, electricity costs can limit the widespread adoption of indoor plant cultivation systems at a commercial scale. LED lighting technologies for plant cultivation are also rapidly evolving, and lamps for indoor cultivation are often designed to optimize their light emissions in the photosynthetically active spectrum (i.e. red and blue), in order to reduce energetic requirements for satisfactory yield. Under these light regimens, however, little information is available in literature about minimum photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) for indoor production of leafy vegetables and herbs, while existing literature often adopts light intensities from 100 to 300 μmol m-2 s-1. This study aims at defining the optimal PPFD for indoor cultivation of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), by linking resource use efficiency to physiological responses and biomass production under different light intensities. Basil and lettuce plants were cultivated at 24 °C and 450 μmol mol-1 CO2 under red and blue light (with red:blue ratio of 3) and a photoperiod of 16 h d-1 of light in growth chambers using five PPFD (100, 150, 200, 250 and 300 μmol m-2 s-1, resulting in daily light integrals, DLI, of 5.8, 8.6, 11.5, 14.4 and 17.3 mol m-2 d-1, respectively). A progressive increase of biomass production for both lettuce and basil up to a PPFD of 250 μmol m-2 s-1 was observed, whereas no further yield increases were associated with higher PPFD (300 μmol m-2 s-1). Despite the highest stomatal conductance associated to a PPFD of 250 μmol m-2 s-1 in lettuce and to a PPFD ≥ 200 μmol m-2 s-1 in basil, water use efficiency was maximized under a PPFD ≥ 200 μmol m-2 s-1 in lettuce and PPFD ≥ 250 μmol m-2 s-1 in basil. Energy and light use efficiencies were increased under a PPFD of 200 and 250 μmol m-2 s-1 in lettuce and under a PPFD of 250 μmol m-2 s-1 in basil. Furthermore, in lettuce grown under 250 μmol m-2 s-1 antioxidant capacity, phenolics and flavonoids were higher as compared with plants supplied with PPFD ≤ 150 μmol m-2 s-1. Accordingly, a PPFD of 250 μmol m-2 s-1 seems suitable for optimizing yield and resource use efficiency in red and blue LED lighting for indoor cultivation of lettuce and basil under the prevailing conditions of the used indoor farming set-up.