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Regarding the occurrence of seismicity on major plate-boundary fault zones, one leading hypothesis is that the processes of lithification is responsible transforming loose, unconsolidated sediment that does not host earthquake nucleation into the frictionally unstable rocks that inhabit the seismogenic zone. Previous laboratory studies comparing the frictional properties of intact rocks and powdered versions of the same rocks generally support this hypothesis. However, systematically quantifying frictional behavior as a function of lithification remains a challenge. Here, we simulate the lithification process in the laboratory by consolidating mixtures of halite and shale powders with halite-saturated brine, which we then desiccate. The desiccation allows precipitation of halite as cement, creating synthetic rocks. We quantify lithification by: (1) direct measurement of cohesion, and (2) measuring the porosity reduction of lithified samples compared to powders. We observe that powdered samples of each halite-shale proportion exhibit predominantly velocity-strengthening friction, whereas lithified samples exhibit a combination of velocity strengthening and significant velocity weakening when halite constitutes at least 30 wt% of the sample. Analysis of the individual rate-dependent friction parameters shows that the occurrence of velocity weakening is due to relatively low values of a for lithified samples. Larger velocity weakening is associated with cohesion of >∼1 MPa, and porosity reduction of >∼50 vol%. Microstructural images reveal that the shear surfaces for powders tend to exhibit small cracks not seen on the lithified sample shear surfaces. Our results suggest that lithification via cementation and porosity loss can facilitate slip instability, supporting the lithification hypothesis for seismogenic slip.

On major plate-boundary fault zones, it is generally observed that large-magnitude earthquakes tend to nucleate within a discrete depth range in the crust known as the seismogenic zone. This is generally explained by the contrast between frictionally stable, velocity strengthening sediments at shallow depths and lithified, velocity-weakening rocks at seismogenic (10’s of km) depth. Thus, it is hypothesized that diagenetic and low-grade metamorphic processes are responsible for the development of velocity-weakening frictional behavior in sediments that make up fault gouges. Previous laboratory studies comparing the frictional properties of intact rocks and powdered versions of the same rocks generally support this hypothesis, however controlling lithification in the laboratory and systematically quantifying frictional behavior as a function of lithification and remains a challenge.Here, we simulate the lithification process in the laboratory by using mixtures of halite and shale powders with halite-saturated brine, which we consolidate under 10 MPa normal stress and subsequently desiccate. The desiccation allows precipitation of halite as cement, creating synthetic rocks. We vary the proportion of salt to shale in our samples, which we use as a proxy for degree of lithification. We measure the frictional properties of our lithified samples, and equivalent powdered versions of these samples, with velocity-step tests in the range 10-7 – 3x10-5 m/s. We quantify lithification by two methods: (1) direct measurement of cohesion, and (2) measuring the porosity reduction of lithified samples compared to powders. Using these measurements, we systematically investigate the relationship between lithification and frictional slip behavior.We observe that powdered samples of every halite-shale proportion exhibits predominantly velocity-strengthening friction, whereas lithified samples exhibit a combination of velocity strengthening and significant velocity weakening when halite constitutes at least 30 wt% of the sample. Larger velocity weakening generally coincides with friction coefficients of > 0.62, cohesion of > ~1 MPa, and porosity reduction of > ~50 vol%. Although none of our lithified samples exhibit strictly velocity-weakening friction, this is consistent with the frictional behavior of pure halite under our experimental conditions. Scanning electron microscopy images do not show any clear characteristics attributable to velocity-weakening, but did reveal that the shear surfaces for powders tends to exhibit small cracks not seen in the lithified sample shear surfaces. These results suggest that lithification via cementation and porosity loss may facilitate slip instability, but that microstructural indicators are subtle.

Numerous mud volcanoes (MVs) are scattered through the Gulf of Cadiz (GoC), most of which are situated close to the WNW-ESE trending fault system in this region. In this study we have investigated six MVs in locations adjacent to major tectonic lineaments with the purpose of defining fluid and solid mobilization depth and ascent through the accretionary prism. Three of them, R2, D2 and Funky Monkey MVs, were discovered during RV Meteor cruise M149 in 2018. Their morphologies were characterized by multibeam bathymetry and vary from flat-topped to cone-shaped, reflecting different nature of the emitted products and variable degrees of activity. Mud breccias and pore fluids were sampled at the summits of all MVs to determine their physical properties and composition of the solid and liquid fractions. The physical properties and lithological changes demonstrate recent activity of Yuma, Ginsburg, Meknes and Funky Monkey MVs. At these sites, we traced back the origin of venting fluids to clay mineral dehydration through major and minor elements geochemistry, high content of illite in the mud breccia matrix and calculated reaction temperatures of 60–100 °C using the Mg–Li geothermometer. Differences in fluid composition imply a dominant clay dehydration signal in the shallow MVs and a stronger crustal input in the deeper MV (Funky Monkey). In contrast, R2 and D2 MVs are textbook inactive mud domes, showing no venting and a chemical composition/reaction temperature similar to seawater. If crustal input in MVs fluids will be confirmed by subsequent studies (e.g., through Sr isotopes), this could lead to a rethinking of fluid migration in the GoC, where transform faults (and MVs located close to them) focus the crustal signal from depth. Based on the MVs active state and the geochemistry of the fluids, we can distinguish which structure would be more suitable for further analyses (B isotopes, illite crystallinity) in order to identify possible sources of hydrocarbon-rich fluids channeled through MVs.

Slow slip events (SSEs) at the northern Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand, are among the best-documented shallow SSEs on Earth. International Ocean Discovery Program Expeditions 372 and 375 were undertaken to investigate the processes and in situ conditions that underlie subduction zone SSEs at the northern Hikurangi Trough. We accomplished this goal by (1) coring and geophysical logging at four sites, including penetration of an active thrust fault (the Pāpaku fault) near the deformation front, the upper plate above the SSE source region, and the incoming sedimentary succession in the Hikurangi Trough and atop the Tūranganui Knoll seamount; and (2) installing borehole observatories in the Pāpaku fault and in the upper plate overlying the slow slip source region. Logging-while-drilling (LWD) data for this project were acquired as part of Expedition 372, and coring, wireline logging, and observatory installations were conducted during Expedition 375. Northern Hikurangi subduction margin SSEs recur every 1–2 y and thus provide an ideal opportunity to monitor deformation and associated changes in chemical and physical properties throughout the slow slip cycle. In situ measurements and sampling of material from the sedimentary section and oceanic basement of the subducting plate reveal the rock properties, composition, lithology, and structural character of material that is transported downdip into the SSE source region. A recent seafloor geodetic experiment raises the possibility that SSEs at northern Hikurangi may propagate to the trench, indicating that the shallow thrust fault (the Pāpaku fault) targeted during Expeditions 372 and 375 may also lie in the SSE rupture area and host a portion of the slip in these events. Hence, sampling and logging at this location provides insights into the composition, physical properties, and architecture of a shallow fault that may host slow slip. Expeditions 372 and 375 were designed to address three fundamental scientific objectives: Characterize the state and composition of the incoming plate and shallow fault near the trench, which comprise the protolith and initial conditions for fault zone rock at greater depth and which may itself host shallow slow slip; Characterize material properties, thermal regime, and stress conditions in the upper plate directly above the SSE source region; and Install observatories in the Pāpaku fault near the deformation front and in the upper plate above the SSE source to measure temporal variations in deformation, temperature, and fluid flow. The observatories will monitor volumetric strain (via pore pressure as a proxy) and the evolution of physical, hydrological, and chemical properties throughout the SSE cycle. Together, the coring, logging, and observatory data will test a suite of hypotheses about the fundamental mechanics and behavior of SSEs and their relationship to great earthquakes along the subduction interface.

Compositional changes, dehydration reactions and fluid flow in subducted sediments influence seismogenesis and arc magmatism in subduction zones. To identify fluid flow and water–rock interaction processes in the western Nankai Trough subduction zone (SW Japan) we analyzed boron concentration and boron isotope composition (δ11B) of pore fluids sampled across the subduction zone forearc from depths of up to ∼922 m below seafloor during four Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Expeditions. The major structural regimes that were sampled by coring include: (1) sedimentary inputs, (2) the frontal thrust zone, (3) the megasplay fault zone, and (4) the forearc basin. From mass balance consideration we find that consumption of boron (B) by ash alteration and desorption of B from the solid phase, mediated by organic matter degradation, produces a net decrease in B concentrations with depth down to ∼120 μM and variable δ11B values in the range of ∼+20‰ and +49‰. Interstitial water in sediments on the incoming oceanic plate are influenced by more efficient mobilization of exchangeable B from the solid phase due to higher temperatures and alteration of the oceanic crust that acts as a sink for 10B. At the tip of the megasplay fault zone, elevated B concentration and B isotopic composition suggest that underthrust coarse-grained slope sediments provide a pathway for fluids out of the upper (

Slow slip events (SSEs) at the northern Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand, are among the best-documented shallow SSEs on Earth. International Ocean Discovery Program Expedition 375 was undertaken to investigate the processes and in situ conditions that underlie subduction zone SSEs at the northern Hikurangi Trough by (1) coring at four sites, including an active fault near the deformation front, the upper plate above the high-slip SSE sourc e region, and the incoming sedimentary succession in the Hikurangi Trough and atop the Tūranganui Knoll Seamount, and (2) installing borehole observatories in an active thrust near the deformation front and in the upper plate overlying the slow slip source region. Logging-while-drilling (LWD) data for this project were acquired as part of Expedition 372 (26 November 2017-4 January 2018; see th e Expedition 372 Preliminary Report for further details on the LWD acquisition program). Northern Hikurangi subduction margin SSEs recur every 1-2 years and thus provide an ideal opportunity to monitor deformation and associated changes in chemical and physical properties throughout the slow slip cycle. Sampling of material from the sedimentary section and oceanic basement of the subducting plate reveals the rock properties, composition, lithology, and structural character of material that is transported downdip into the SSE source region. A recent seafloor geodetic experiment raises the possibility that SSEs at northern Hikurangi may propagate all the way to the trench, indicating that the shallow thrust fault zone targeted during Expedition 375 may also lie in the SSE rupture area. Hence, sampling at this location provides insights into the composition, physical properties, and architecture of a shallow fault that may host slow slip. Expedition 375 (together with the Hikurangi subduction LWD component of Expedition 372) was designed to address three fundamental scientific objectives: (1) characterize the state and composition of the incoming plate and shallow plate boundary fault near the trench, which comprise the protolith and initial conditions for fault zone rock at greater depth and which may itself host shallow slow slip; (2) characterize material properties, thermal regime, and stress conditions in the upper plate above the core of the SSE source region; and (3) install observatories at an active thrust near the deformation front and in the upper plate above the SSE source to measure temporal variations in deformation, temperature, and fluid flow. The observatories will monitor volumetric strain (via pore pressure as a proxy) and the evolution of physical, hydrological, and chemical properties throughout the SSE cycle. Together, the coring, logging, and observatory data will test a suite of hypotheses about the fundamental mechanics and behavior of SSEs and their relationship to great earthquakes along the subduction interface.

Previous work suggests that in subduction zones, the onset of large earthquake nucleation at depths > ~ 5–10 km is likely driven by a combination of factors associated with the process of lithification. At these depths, lithification processes affect the entire fault system by modifying the mechanical properties of both the plate boundary fault zone and the wall-rock. To test the hypothesis that lithification of subduction zone sediments produces rocks capable of earthquake nucleation via diagenesis and low-grade metamorphism, we conducted friction experiments on fossil subduction zone sediments recovered from exposures in the Shimanto Belt in SW Japan. These meta-sediments represent accreted and subducted material which has experienced maximum temperatures of 125 to 225 °C, which are representative of seismogenic depths along the active Nankai subduction megathrust in the foreland of the Shimanto Belt. We find that intact Shimanto rock samples, which preserve the influence of diagenetic and metamorphic processes, exhibit the potential for unstable slip under in-situ pressure conditions. Powdered versions of the same samples tested under the same conditions exhibit only velocity-strengthening friction, thus demonstrating that destroying the lithification state also removes the potential for unstable slip. Using advanced porosity loss to quantify the lithification process, we demonstrate that increased velocity weakening correlates with increasingly advanced lithification. In combination with documented frictionally stable behavior of subduction zone sediments from shallower depths, our results provide evidence that the sediment lithification hypothesis can explain the depth-dependent onset of large earthquake nucleation along subduction zone megathrusts.

One poorly understood feature of the subduction inputs to the Nankai Trough subduction zone (SW Japan) is a stratigraphic interval with an anomalously high porosity zone (HPZ), which is up to 240 m thick and located within the clay- and volcanic ash-rich Shikoku Basin facies. To investigate the origin of their peculiar physical properties, we integrated logging-while-drilling (LWD) data, shipboard density measurements, and visual descriptions of core samples recovered from four drill sites of the Ocean Drilling Program and Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. We combined those observations with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and laboratory consolidation tests on both HPZ samples and artificial mixtures of ash (glass shards) + smectite and vesicular pumice + smectite. LWD data indicate that the HPZ mudstones have a large proportion of dispersed volcanic ash (~ 20–30%). The consolidation tests show that the rate of porosity loss with increasing effective stress (consolidation behavior) is consistent among HPZ specimens and matches artificial mixtures containing up to 60% volcanic material. However, absolute values of porosity remain higher for HPZ samples compared to artificial mixtures, so processes in addition to the mechanical effects of volcanic clasts must be contributing. We suggest that hydration and partial dissolution turns clusters of volcanic glass into aggregates with distinct microfabric. SEM images confirm the presence of strengthened grain-to-grain contacts, which probably inhibit the collapse of the intra-aggregate pore space. The aggregates behave like grains, so that cohesive strength of the bulk sediment and rate of porosity loss remain nearly unchanged during burial. The two-step diagenetic process of dissolution and precipitation depends critically on a threshold abundance of fine-grained dispersed volcanic ash/pumice. Older units in the Shikoku Basin with only traces of dispersed ash show no such effects. HPZs should be expected in other subduction zones with similar compositional and diagenetic prerequisites.

Sediments tell a tsunami story Trying to understand where major earthquakes and tsunamis might occur requires analysis of the sediments pouring into a subduction zone. Thick sediments were expected to limit earthquake and tsunami size in the Sumatran megathrust event in 2004, but the magnitude 9.2 earthquake defied expectations. Hüpers et al. analyzed sediments recovered from the Sumatran megathrust. They found evidence of sediment dehydration, which increased fault strength and allowed for the much larger earthquake to occur. Thus, models of other subduction zones, such as the Gulf of Alaska, may underestimate the maximum earthquake magnitude and tsunami risk. Science , this issue p. 841

Along the Nankai Trough megasplay fault off SE Japan, the effect of fluid migration on subduction-related seismogenesis and tsunamigenesis remains unresolved. To investigate the existence and role of fluid flow, a SmartPlug borehole observatory was installed at Site C0010 of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program NanTroSEIZE Kumano transect, where a shallow branch of the fault was intersected and in situ fluid pressure monitored from August 2009 to November 2010. The tidal signal in the formation showed no phase shift relative to seafloor loading. The attenuation of 0.73 reflects the loading efficiency accurately, and enabled calculation of a formation compressibility of 1.0×10–9 Pa–1 and a hydraulic diffusivity (HD) of 1.5×10–5 m2 s–1. A similar HD is predicted by a tidal response model based on SmartPlug pressure data. By contrast, permeability measurements on intact samples from Site C0004 SE along-strike the splay fault and from Site C0006 in the frontal thrust zone were found to be similar and one magnitude smaller respectively, despite having a higher porosity. This is explained by the presence of fractures, which are covered by the larger scale of in situ measurements at Site C0010. Consequently, HD can be set to be at least 10–5 m2 s–1 for the splay fault and 10–6 m2 s–1 for the frontal thrust fault zone. Considering recent publications makes fluid flow at the splay fault unlikely, despite the presence of fractures. If the influence of fractures is limited, then processes leading to fault weakening may be enhanced.

[1] The mechanical behavior of the plate boundary fault zone is of paramount importance in subduction zones, because it controls megathrust earthquake nucleation and propagation as well as the structural style of the forearc. In the Nankai area along the NanTroSEIZE (Kumano) drilling transect offshore SW Japan, a heterogeneous sedimentary sequence overlying the oceanic crust enters the subduction zone. In order to predict how variations in lithology, and thus mechanical properties, affect the formation and evolution of the plate boundary fault, we conducted laboratory tests measuring the shear strengths of sediments approaching the trench covering each major lithological sedimentary unit. We observe that shear strength increases nonlinearly with depth, such that the (apparent) coefficient of friction decreases. In combination with a critical taper analysis, the results imply that the plate boundary position is located on the main frontal thrust. Further landward, the plate boundary is expected to step down into progressively lower stratigraphic units, assisted by moderately elevated pore pressures. As seismogenic depths are approached, the decollement may further step down to lower volcaniclastic or pelagic strata but this requires specific overpressure conditions. High-taper angle and elevated strengths in the toe region may be local features restricted to the Kumano transect.

The recovery of drill cores involves changes in pressure and temperature conditions, which inevitably alter the mechanical properties of unlithified sediments. While expansion from unloading after core recovery is well studied, the effects from cooling on standard geotechnical tests are commonly neglected. Along the central portion of the Nankai margin sediments were recovered from high in-situ temperatures of up to 110 °C during IODP Leg 190. So far, the interpretation of the consolidation state of the Lower Shikoku Basin facies (LSB) entering the accretionary Nankai margin is ambiguous. Results from laboratory consolidation tests at room temperature show high pre-consolidation stresses. These were interpreted as hardening caused by cementation, while the field-based porosity vs. depth trend points towards normal consolidation. As an explanation for this discrepancy, the change of the mechanical properties by cooling from in-situ to laboratory conditions is proposed. In this paper, the results of a thermo-mechanical model are compared to published field data. This comparison suggests that the observed hardening is at least partially an artefact from cooling during core recovery, and that the strata may be considered normally consolidated to slightly overconsolidated. The latter can be explained by minor cementation or the influence of secondary consolidation. The results suggest that cooling from high in-situ temperatures may be important for the interpretation of the consolidation state of other sedimentary successions elsewhere.

The Nankai Trough convergent margin has been the focus of many multi-methodological surveys including half a dozen scientific deep-sea drilling expeditions. The boreholes focused on the smectite-dominated area off Cape Ashizuri and the thermally altered, illite-dominated region off Cape Muroto. On the basis of these surveys a number of studies addressed to the stress state of the underthrust sediments and its implications for the plate boundary thrust. Although the basement temperature has been found to be up to ∼ 110 °C, none of these studies drew close attention to temperature effects on the consolidation state of the sediments. To overcome this shortcoming, we selected end member sediment lithologies from the incoming oceanic plate in the Shikoku Basin and subjected them to elevated stresses and temperatures. We here present results from a series of heated (20 °C, 100 °C, 150 °C) uniaxial consolidation experiments up to effective normal stresses of ca. 70 MPa. The main finding is a positive correlation between temperature and pore space reduction. Based on in-situ temperature information from earlier scientific drilling, our study suggests that temperature has an influence on the consolidation state of underthrust sediments along the Nankai Margin. Together with secondary consolidation, thermal consolidation serves to explain steep log-linear consolidation curves of the incoming Lower Shikoku Basin sediments. The onset of diagenesis in this realm led to the transition of smectite to illite and to a different consolidation behaviour. Estimated in-situ pore pressures based on in-situ temperature data result in up to ∼ 1 MPa smaller overpressures than those previously estimated from drilling data alone. Those values, which imply underconsolidation at drill sites near the frontal Nankai accretionary complex, are further believed to facilitate frictional sliding along the subduction thrust.

High levels of SO2 and particulate pollution enable the rapid development of gypsum-rich weathering crusts in Budapest. Two types of white crusts, thin and thick ones, and two forms of black crusts, laminar and framboidal ones, were studied in limestone buildings of the parliament and Citadella. The percentage of crust cover and damage categories were documented on selected walls. Petrographic, XRD, XRF and sulphur isotope analyses were performed under laboratory conditions to understand the mechanism of crust formation. White crusts found both on exposed and sheltered walls display a calcite-rich layer with gypsum, while black crusts are enriched with gypsum. The sulphur isotopic composition of white and black crusts overlaps, but the crusts are slightly enriched in heavy isotopes compared to rainwater. S content, Si/Al ratios and particulates in black crusts suggest that air pollution (SO2, dust) contributes to black crust formation. The accumulation of sulphur and Zn enrichment of white crusts were also documented indicating that under high pollution levels, even these compound can accumulate on exposed facades.

The dynamics of accretionary convergent margins are severely influenced by intense deformation and fluid expulsion. To quantify the fluid pressure and fluid flow velocities in the Hellenic subduction system, we set up 2-D hydrogeological numerical models following two seismic reflection lines across the Mediterranean Ridge. These profiles bracket the along-strike variation in wedge geometry: moderate compression and a >4 km thick underthrust sequence in the west versus enhanced compression and

[1] The diagenetic smectite to illite transition is widely accepted to cause ubiquitous pore water freshening at convergent margins. However, experimental consolidation tests show that smectite also dehydrates partially with increasing effective stress. To shed light on this process three hydrothermal consolidation tests on a silty smectite-rich claystone were conducted with stresses (P) up to 70 MPa and at constant temperatures (T) of 20°C, 60°C and 100°C. Fluids expelled during the tests were analyzed for major and trace elements to evaluate dehydration and fluid-rock interaction with increasing PT conditions. The results document that fluid freshening starts when the effective stress exceeds 1.3 MPa. The smectite interlayer water content decreases from 27 wt-% to ∼20 wt-% during the experiments, which is equivalent to an interlayer collapse from 18.5 to ∼15.4 A. The released interlayer H20 accounts for up to 17% of the total fluid volume released from the consolidating sediment. Major and volatile element geochemistry is influenced by temperature and smectite interlayer collapse. The interlayer collapse is characterized by K and Ca uptake while is B released from smectite. Application of experimental results to the Barbados accretionary margin shows that stress dependent smectite dehydration is an important fluid source mechanism and accounts for substantial fluid freshening. Modeled smectite dehydration suggests a decrease of smectite interlayer water content from 27 wt-% at the surface down to ∼22 wt-% at 2 km depth. This leads to chlorinity values as low as 460 mM.