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Studies of European trade have largely focused on bulk commodities, ignoring minor products. The Danish Soundtoll Registers Online (STRO) document the North-Baltic Seas maritime trade from the 16th century to the 19th. They are an untapped resource to understand the trade of plant products. Here, we present an overview of plants recorded in the STRO from 1497–1857, based on thousands of handwritten vernacular plant name variations in Danish. We found 264 plant products corresponding to 140 botanical taxa. We confirm previous findings regarding bulk goods, such as wood, wine, and (sub)tropical spices, but also uncover trade of wild food plants and herbal medicines. Notably dodder (Cuscuta spp.) and purging cassia (Cassia fistula L.) were traded as frequently as currently well-known plant-based commodities such as tea (Camellia sinensis [L.] Kuntze) and rhubarb (Rheum rhabarbarum L.). This indicates their former importance. Through the botanically identified dataset we present here, the STRO reveal the diversity of historical plant trade. We discuss what this overview adds to the understanding of historic plant trade in Europe and outline suggestions for future research that can be addressed using these data.

BackgroundSoon after the Spanish conquest of the Americas, the first tomatoes were presented as curiosities to the European elite and drew the attention of sixteenth-century Italian naturalists. Despite of their scientific interest in this New World crop, most Renaissance botanists did not specify where these ‘golden apples’ or ‘pomi d’oro’ came from. The debate on the first European tomatoes and their origin is often hindered by erroneous dating, botanical misidentifications and inaccessible historical sources. The discovery of a tomato specimen in the sixteenth-century ‘En Tibi herbarium’ kept at Leiden, the Netherlands, triggered research on its geographical provenance and morphological comparison to other tomato specimens and illustrations from the same time period.MethodsRecent digitization efforts greatly facilitate research on historic botanical sources. Here we provide an overview of the ten remaining sixteenth-century tomato specimens, early descriptions and 13 illustrations. Several were never published before, revealing what these tomatoes looked like, who saw them, and where they came from. We compare our historical findings with recent molecular research on the chloroplast and nuclear DNA of the ‘En Tibi’ specimen.ResultsOur survey shows that the earliest tomatoes in Europe came in a much wider variety of colors, shapes and sizes than previously thought, with both simple and fasciated flowers, round and segmented fruits. Pietro Andrea Matthioli gave the first description of a tomato in 1544, and the oldest specimens were collected by Ulisse Aldrovandi and Francesco Petrollini in c. 1551, possibly from plants grown in the Pisa botanical garden by their teacher Luca Ghini. The oldest tomato illustrations were made in Germany and Switzerland in the early 1550s, but the Flemish Rembert Dodoens published the first image in 1553. The names of early tomatoes in contemporary manuscripts suggest both a Mexican and a Peruvian origin. The ‘En Tibi’ specimen was collected by Petrollini around 1558 and thus is not the oldest extant tomato. Recent molecular research on the ancient nuclear and chloroplast DNA of the En Tibi specimen clearly shows that it was a fully domesticated tomato, and genetically close to three Mexican landraces and two Peruvian specimens that probably also had a Mesoamerican origin. Molecular research on the other sixteenth-century tomato specimens may reveal other patterns of genetic similarity, past selection processes, and geographic origin. Clues on the ‘historic’ taste and pest resistance of the sixteenth-century tomatoes will be difficult to predict from their degraded DNA, but should be rather sought in those landraces in Central and South America that are genetically close to them. The indigenous farmers growing these traditional varieties should be supported to conserve these heirloom varietiesin-situ.

This paper reviews the floristic composition, vegetation structure, and diversity of three types of swamp forest that cover a considerable part of Guyana’s North-West District. Trees, shrubs, lianas, herbs, and hemi-epiphytes were inventoried in three hectare plots: one in Mora forest, one in quackal swamp, and one in manicole swamp. The Mora forest, flooded annually by white water, was dominated by relatively few, large individuals of Mora excelsa. The very dense, thin-stemmed quackal forest, almost permanently flooded by black water, was characterized by Tabebuia insignis and Symphonia globulifera and contained few palms. The somewhat less dense manicole swamp, flooded regularly by brackish water, was distinguished by large numbers of Euterpe oleracea. Although the three swamps showed little overlap in floristic composition and densities of dominant species, they represent some of the lowest diversity forest in the Neotropics, with an -diversity of 7.4 for the Mora forest, 8.2 for the quackal forest and 5.7 for the manicole swamp. When compared with similar vegetation types in the Guiana Shield, the swamp forests in this study show some interesting differences in species composition and density. The wetlands of the North-West District form the last stretch of natural coastline in Guyana and play an important role in the protection of riverine ecosystems. Furthermore, there is commercial potential for the extraction of non-timber forest products from these low-diversity forests. Nevertheless, in prolonged dry periods, large tracts of quackal forest are being burnt to give way to almost treeless, flooded savannas. For these reasons, adequate management and conservation strategies must be developed for the area.

This thesis describes the use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) by indigenous peoples of northwest Guyana. Part I contains a general analysis of NTFP harvesting in northwest Guyana Part II is an illustrated field guide of the useful plants encountered. Chapter 1: introduction Chapter 2: floristic composition and vegetation structure of well-drained mixed forest and 20- and 60-year old secondary forests. Previous forest inventories predicted a general low diversity for the North-West District, but the present forest plots turned out to rank among the most diverse studied in Guyana so far. Chapter 3: floristic composition and vegetation structure of three types of swamp forests in the region: 1) Mora forest, flooded annually by white water, 2) Quackal swamp, almost permanently flooded by black water, 3) Manicole swamp, flooded regularly by brackish water, with large numbers of Euterpe oleracea. These low-diversity wetlands are quite important for the extraction of commercial NTFPs. Chapter 4: quantitative assessment of the useful species in the seven forest types. Variations in useful species between the plots were caused by floristic diversity, socio-economic and cultural differences. High floristic diversity is not a prerequisite for sustainable NTFP extraction. Craft-producing hemiepiphytes are among the few species that have a potential to preserve this forest, as standing forest is needed for the required products. Dominated by economically important species, low-diversity forests offer the best opportunities for sustainable NTFP harvesting. Chapter 5: Palm heart harvesting from Euterpe oleracea. Supporting a canning industry worth US$ 2 million annually in export value, palm heart harvesting is the principal source of income for Amerindian communities in the coastal wetlands. After several years of exploitation at much shorter intervals than the generally recommended four to five years, Euterpe populations steadily decline in size, vitality, reproduction, and yield. Neglect of traditional farming and total dependency on the palm heart industry have led to high pressure on the forest and socio-economic problems in several communities. When extraction was combined with subsistence farming, fallow periods were longer. A management plan is needed to ensure the future supply of palm hearts, since the sustainable harvest of this resource is of vital importance to the country's well being. Chapter 6: commercial extraction of the major NTFPs in the region: palm hearts, wildlife, craft fibres, palm leaves and mangrove bark. Total export revenues were estimated at US $4.2 million per year. Most products have an ecological potential for commercial extraction. Chapter 7: fish poisons currently used in northwest Guyana. Fish poisons also play an important role in magic rituals and traditional medicine. Particularly striking was the use of Lonchocarpus spp. and Tephrosia sinapou in the treatment of cancer and AIDS. Chapter 8: indigenous herbal medicine in northwest Guyana. 294 medicinal plant species were found, mostly harvested from the wild. The highest number of plants was used to treat common colds and coughs, followed by skin sores and malaria. Quite some medicinal species are sold in the capital, very few are commercialised in the interior. Chapter 9: discussion and conclusions. Part II of this thesis contains scientific and vernacular plant names, botanical descriptions and uses of 471 useful species. For the 85 major NTFPs, detailed descriptions, illustrations and information on habitat preference and seasonal availability are provided.

Calamus javensis is polymorphic. Morphometry and molecular approach resulted in all names used in the complex are regarded as synonyms of C. javensis except C. tenompokensis, which is retained as a distinct species. One variety is here recognized, C. javensis var. polyphyllus (including C. acuminatus)

The largest genus within the Phyllanthaceae family is a group called Phyllanthus L. Recent studies have shown, that Phyllanthus is paraphyletic with the genera Glochidion, Breynia and Synostemon nested within it. In this thesis, I study the evolution and systematics of Phyllanthus and how to solve the apparent paraphyly. First we explore past morphological subgroups to come to a subdivision, which was tested using molecular phylogenetics. Several species of Phyllanthus are also used in traditional medicine and by utilizing the living collections of the Hortus botanicus Leiden, we tested for antibacterial and antifungal bioactivity. The phylogeny resulting from this study is used to study the historical biogeography and diversification of the tribe and to propose a new classification where Phyllanthus is separated into several smaller genera.

The largest genus within the Phyllanthaceae family is a group called Phyllanthus L. Recent studies have shown, that Phyllanthus is paraphyletic with the genera Glochidion, Breynia and Synostemon nested within it. In this thesis, I study the evolution and systematics of Phyllanthus and how to solve the apparent paraphyly. First we explore past morphological subgroups to come to a subdivision, which was tested using molecular phylogenetics. Several species of Phyllanthus are also used in traditional medicine and by utilizing the living collections of the Hortus botanicus Leiden, we tested for antibacterial and antifungal bioactivity. The phylogeny resulting from this study is used to study the historical biogeography and diversification of the tribe and to propose a new classification where Phyllanthus is separated into several smaller genera.

Dissochaeta Blume (Melastomataceae, tribe Dissochaeteae) is well-known as a scrambling plant genus found in Southeast Asia, where it is an inhabitant of the tropical rainforests or evergreen forests.The main objectives of this thesis are to clarify the relationships among species and genera within the Dissochaeta alliance and to provide a new classification, which reflects the evolutionary and biogeographic traits of this plant group. The study focuses on three aspects of the Dissochaetaalliance: the taxonomy, molecular phylogeny and historical biogeography.

Natural history collections provide invaluable sources for researchers with different disciplinary backgrounds, aspiring to study the geographical distribution of flora and fauna across the globe as well as other evolutionary processes. They are of paramount importance for mapping out long-term changes: from culture, to ecology, to how natural history is practiced.This thesis describes computational methods for knowledge extraction from archives of natural history collections---here referring to handwritten manuscripts and hand-drawn illustrations. As we are dealing with heterogeneous real-world data, the task becomes exceptionally challenging. Small samples and a long-tailed distribution, sometimes with very fine-grained distinctions between classes, hamper model learning. Prior knowledge is therefore needed to bootstrap the learning process. Moreover, archival content can be difficult to interpret and integrate, and should therefore be formally described for data integration within and across collections. By serving extracted knowledge to the Semantic Web, collections are made amenable for research and integration with other biodiversity resources on the Web.

This thesis presents the systematics, epidermal defense, and bioprospecting of wild orchids. I mainly targeted Indonesian orchids, with particular emphasis on the genus Glomera with 169 species. Four main challenges of this group of orchids were tackled. First of all, a web-based multilingual interactive key of Glomera, one of the lesser-known genera in the horticulturally popular necklace orchids, was constructed. This key simplifies species identification for further taxonomic revisions by both specialists and amateur orchid enthusiasts. Secondly, identification of non-flowering Glomera specimens in botanical gardens was sped up by producing DNA barcodes of herbarium preserved flowering type specimens. These DNA barcodes were matched with data obtained from vegetative fresh plants. Thirdly, improving protection of orchids in botanic gardens and nature reserves against herbivory was investigated. Centrifuge and feeding experiments showed that leaf trichomes and wax layers reduce both the adhesion and appetite of herbivorous snails. Lastly, bioprospecting was explored to help financing the maintenance of orchid collections in botanical gardens and protection of nature reserves. For this, traditional medicinal use was compiled from the literature and plotted on a molecular phylogeny. Potential clades with high antimicrobial potential were traced by employing two different methods: organ targeted and biological response based. The latter proved to be more effective. The research presented in this thesis provides new approaches to improve identification, protection against herbivory, and bioprospecting of wild orchids cultivated in botanical gardens and preserved in nature reserves.

The aim of my study was to analyze the impact of selective logging on plant and bird diversity in East Kalimantan. The impact of logging on plant communities was studied in a forest (in the process of FSC certification) that has been logged selectively 1, 5 and 10 years previously compared to a primary forest site. The stem densities of trees in the primary forest were significantly higher compared to the three selectively logged forest sites. Stem densities of saplings were equivalent in all four forest sites. Seedling stem densities were significantly higher in the forest site logged 10 years previously compared to the primary forest. The “heavy hardwood” class, represented by a certain abundance of stems and species richness, was significantly lower in the forest sites selectively logged 1 and 5 years ago compared to the primary forest site. Stems with a higher abundance in the selectively logged forest sites generally belonged to the “light wood” class. I also studied the impact of logging on bird communities in East Kalimantan. My study compared secondary forest sites with relatively undisturbed primary lowland dipterocarp rain forest sites of East Kalimantan. All birds were identified during point counts in all sites; in the selective logging concession in a primary site and in selectively logged forest sites in the Berau district, a primary site in Sungai Wain and a disturbed site in Pusrehut Kutai Kartanegara. I found a significantly higher abundance of birds in the terrestrial foraging layer in primary forests as compared to secondary forests. I also found a significantly higher abundance of birds of the frugivorous/insectivorous guild and of endemic insectivorous birds in the primary forest.

Women__s knowledge of medicinal plants has largely been understudied in the field of ethnobotany. In addition to this gender bias, most ethnobotanical research has focused on the expert knowledge of traditional healers, overlooking the domestic knowledge of women. This is a particular concern for African women__s knowledge of reproductive health and childcare, since gynecological morbidity and infant mortality are among the most severe health problems in African countries. This dissertation sought to unravel the relationship between women and plants by assessing women__s medicinal plant knowledge and plant use practices for reproductive health and childcare in B_nin, West Africa and Gabon, Central Africa. Through the use of ethnobotanical questionnaires, botanical specimen collection, and herbal market surveys this study assesses (1) which types of vegetation women harvest for medicinal plants, (2) how closely women__s health perspectives, plant knowledge, and plant use practices reflect the statistical causes of maternal mortality (3) which infant illnesses mothers know how to treat with medicinal plants and for which illnesses they seek biomedical care or traditional healers, and (4) which species, volume, and value of medicinal plant products are sold on herbal markets in Gabon